Arbitration(មជ្ឈត្តការ)

Vannara Chin Law ជិន វណ្ណារ៉ា នីតិជំនួញ៖

មជ្ឈត្តការ

ណារ៉ា ពាណិជ្ជកម្មអន្តរជាតិ

ណារ៉ា ពាណិជ្ជកម្មអន្តរជាតិ.

តួនាទី​នៃ​ក្រុមប្រឹក្សា​ធម្មនុញ្ញ

តួនាទីនៃក្រុមប្រឹក្សាធម្មនុញ្ញ.

World Intellectual Property Organization

ប្រភព៖ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Intellectual_Property_

Organization)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

World Intellectual Property Organization
WIPO logo
Org type	Specialized Agency
Acronyms	WIPO
Head	Director-General of WIPO Francis Gurry
Status	Active
Established	July 14, 1967
Website	www.wipo.int

WIPO members

  Members

  Non-members

Francis Gurry in 2011

The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is one of the 17 specialized agencies of the United Nations. WIPO was created in 1967 “to encourage creative activity, to promote the protection of intellectual property throughout the world”.^[1]

WIPO currently has 185 member states,^[2] administers 24 international treaties,^[3] and is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. The current Director-General of WIPO is Francis Gurry, who took office on October 1, 2008.^[4] 183 of the UN Members as well as the Holy See are Members of WIPO. Non-members are the states of Cook Islands, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Solomon Islands, Timor-Leste,Tuvalu, Vanuatu and the states with limited recognition. Palestine has observer status.^[5]

Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Criticism 3 Information network 4 See also 5 Notes and references 6 External links

[edit]History

The predecessor to WIPO was the BIRPI (Bureaux Internationaux Réunis pour la Protection de la Propriété Intellectuelle, French acronym for United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property), which had been established in 1893 to administer the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works and the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property.

WIPO was formally created by the Convention Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization, which entered into force on April 26, 1970. Under Article 3 of this Convention, WIPO seeks to “promote the protection of intellectual property throughout the world.” WIPO became a specialized agency of the UN in 1974. The Agreement between the United Nations and the World Intellectual Property Organization^[6] notes in Article 1 that WIPO is responsible

“for promoting creative intellectual activity and for facilitating the transfer of technology related to industrial property to the developing countries in order to accelerate economic, social and cultural development, subject to the competence and responsibilities of the United Nations and its organs, particularly the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, the United Nations Development Programme and the United Nations Industrial Development Organization, as well as of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and of other agencies within the United Nations system.”

The Agreement marked a transition for WIPO from the mandate it inherited in 1967 from BIRPI, to promote the protection of intellectual property, to one that in theory involved the more complex task of promoting technology transfer and economic development. ^[7] However, these two mission are often not compatible. ^[8]

Unlike other branches of the United Nations, WIPO has significant financial resources independent of the contributions from its Member States. In 2006, over 90% of its income of just over CHF 250 million^[9] was expected to be generated from the collection of fees by the International Bureau (IB) under the intellectual property application and registration systems which it administers (the Patent Cooperation Treaty, the Madrid system for trade marks and theHague system for industrial designs).

[edit]Criticism

As with all United Nations multi-government forums, WIPO is not an elected body. WIPO usually attempts to reach decisions by consensus, but in any vote, each Member State is entitled to one vote, regardless of population or contribution to the funding. This has highlighted a disagreement over certain issues, due to the North-South divide in the politics of intellectual property. During the 1960s and 1970s, developing nations were able to block expansions to intellectual property treaties, such as universal pharmaceutical patents which might have occurred through WIPO^[vague]

In the 1980s, this led to the United States and other developed countries “forum shifting” intellectual property standard-setting out of WIPO and into theGeneral Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, which later evolved into the World Trade Organization, where the North had greater control of the agenda. This strategy eventually resulted in the enactment ofAgreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS).^{[citation needed]}

Much of the work at WIPO is done through committees, including the Standing Committee on Patents (SCP), the Standing Committee on Copyright and Related Rights (SCCR), the Advisory Committee on Enforcement (ACE), and the Intergovernmental Committee (IGC) on Access to Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore, and the Working Group on Reform of the Patent Cooperation Treaty.^[who?]

In October 2004, WIPO agreed to adopt a proposal offered by Argentina and Brazil, the “Proposal for the Establishment of a Development Agenda for WIPO” – from the Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization.^[10] This proposal was well supported by developing countries. A number of civil society bodies have been working on a draft Access to Knowledge (A2K)^[11] Treaty which they would like to see introduced.

The Washington Post reported in 2003 that Lois Boland (USPTO Director of International Relations) said “that open-source software runs counter to the mission of WIPO, which is to promote intellectual-property rights.” Also saying, “To hold a meeting which has as its purpose to disclaim or waive such rights seems to us to be contrary to the goals of WIPO.”^[12]

[edit]Information network

WIPO has established WIPOnet, a global information network. The project seeks to link over 300 intellectual property offices (IP offices) in all WIPO Member States. In addition to providing a means of secure communication among all connected parties, WIPOnet is the foundation for WIPO’s intellectual property services.^[13]

[edit]See also

• Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement
• Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization
• Intellectual property
• List of parties to international copyright agreements
• Substantive Patent Law Treaty (SPLT)
• Treaties administered by the World Intellectual Property Organization
• Uniform Domain-Name Dispute-Resolution Policy
• World Intellectual Property Day (April 26)
• World Intellectual Wealth Organisation

[edit]Notes and references

1. ^ Convention Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization, [1] signed at Stockholm on July 14, 1967, Preamble, second paragraph.
2. ^ List of members states of WIPO. Consulted on February 2, 2012.
3. ^ Treates administered by WIPO. Consulted on September 11, 2008.
4. ^ WIPO web site, Francis Gurry is appointed Director General of WIPO, News Archive 2008. Consulted on September 27, 2008.
5. ^ Palestine WIPO status
6. ^ Agreement between the United Nations and the World Intellectual Property Organization
7. ^ p12, Shabalala et al. “A Citizen’s Guide to WIPO” CIEL 2007. Available at:http://www.ciel.org/Publications/CitizensGuide_WIPO_Oct07.pdf
8. ^ Helpman, Elhanan (1990) Innovation, Imitation, and Intelectual Property Rightshttp://www.nber.org/papers/w4081.pdf?new_window=1
9. ^ Proposed program and budget 2006/2007 estimates 456m fee income out of total 531m income for the biennium, WO/PBC/8/3
10. ^ Consumer Project on Technology web site, Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization
11. ^ Consumer Project on Technology web site, Access to Knowledge (A2K)
12. ^ Jonathan Krim, The Quiet War Over Open-Source, The Washington Post, August 21, 2003
13. ^ United Nations Multilingual Terminology Database, Entry on World Intellectual Property Organization. Consulted on February 24, 2008.

[edit]External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: World Intellectual Property Organization

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: World Intellectual Property Organization

• World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) website

• List of member states

World Trade Organization

ប្រភព៖ (​​​http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wto)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

  (Redirected from Wto)

“WTO” redirects here. For other uses, see WTO (disambiguation).

The organization is currently endeavoring to persist with a trade negotiation called the Doha Development Agenda (or Doha Round), which was launched in 2001 to enhance equitable participation of poorer countries which represent a majority of the world’s population. However, the negotiation has been dogged by “disagreement between exporters of agricultural bulk commodities and countries with large numbers of subsistence farmers on the precise terms of a ‘special safeguard measure’ to protect farmers from surges in imports. At this time, the future of the Doha Round is uncertain.”^[6]The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an organization that intends to supervise and liberalize international trade. The organization officially commenced on January 1, 1995 under the Marrakech Agreement, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which commenced in 1948. The organization deals with regulation of trade between participating countries; it provides a framework for negotiating and formalizing trade agreements, and a dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participants’ adherence to WTO agreements which are signed by representatives of member governments and ratified by their parliaments.^[4][5] Most of the issues that the WTO focuses on derive from previous trade negotiations, especially from the Uruguay Round (1986–1994).

Contents [hide] 1 History 1.1 GATT rounds of negotiations 1.2 Ministerial conferences 1.3 Doha Round 2 Functions 3 Principles of the trading system 4 Organizational structure 5 Decision-making 6 Dispute settlement 7 Accession and membership 7.1 Accession process 7.2 Members and observers 8 Agreements 9 Effectiveness 10 Directors-General 11 See also 12 Notes 13 External links

[edit]History

Harry White (l) and John Maynard Keynes at the Bretton Woods Conference — Both economists had been strong advocates of a liberal international trade environment, and recommended the establishment of three institutions: the IMF (fiscal and monetary issues), the World Bank (financial and structural issues), and the ITO (international economic cooperation).^[7]

The WTO’s predecessor, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), was established after World War II in the wake of other new multilateral institutions dedicated to international economic cooperation — notably the Bretton Woods institutions known as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. A comparable international institution for trade, named the International Trade Organization was successfully negotiated. The ITO was to be a United Nations specialized agency and would address not only trade barriers but other issues indirectly related to trade, including employment, investment, restrictive business practices, and commodity agreements. But the ITO treaty was not approved by the U.S. and a few other signatories and never went into effect.^[8][9][10]

In the absence of an international organization for trade, the GATT would over the years “transform itself” into a de facto international organization.^[11]

[edit]GATT rounds of negotiations

See also: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

The GATT was the only multilateral instrument governing international trade from 1947 until the WTO was established in 1995.^[12] Despite attempts in the mid 1950s and 1960s to create some form of institutional mechanism for international trade, the GATT continued to operate for almost half a century as a semi-institutionalized multilateral treaty regime on a provisional basis.^[13]

[edit]From Geneva to Tokyo

Seven rounds of negotiations occurred under GATT. The first real GATT trade rounds concentrated on further reducing tariffs. Then, the Kennedy Round in the mid-sixties brought about a GATT anti-dumping Agreement and a section on development. The Tokyo Round during the seventies was the first major attempt to tackle trade barriers that do not take the form of tariffs, and to improve the system, adopting a series of agreements on non-tariff barriers, which in some cases interpreted existing GATT rules, and in others broke entirely new ground. Because these plurilateral agreements were not accepted by the full GATT membership, they were often informally called “codes”. Several of these codes were amended in the Uruguay Round, and turned into multilateral commitments accepted by all WTO members. Only four remained plurilateral (those on government procurement, bovine meat, civil aircraft and dairy products), but in 1997 WTO members agreed to terminate the bovine meat and dairy agreements, leaving only two.^[12]

[edit]Uruguay Round

During the Doha Round, the US government blamed Brazil and India for being inflexible, and the EU for impeding agricultural imports.^[14] The Ex-President of Brazil, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, responded to the criticisms by arguing that progress would only be achieved if the richest countries (especially the US and countries in the EU) make deeper cuts in their agricultural subsidies, and further open their markets for agricultural goods.^[15]

Main article: Uruguay Round

Well before GATT’s 40th anniversary, its members concluded that the GATT system was straining to adapt to a new globalizing world economy.^[16][17] In response to the problems identified in the 1982 Ministerial Declaration (structural deficiencies, spill-over impacts of certain countries’ policies on world trade GATT could not manage etc.), the eighth GATT round — known as the Uruguay Round — was launched in September 1986, in Punta del Este, Uruguay.^[16]

It was the biggest negotiating mandate on trade ever agreed: the talks were going to extend the trading system into several new areas, notably trade in services and intellectual property, and to reform trade in the sensitive sectors of agriculture and textiles; all the original GATT articles were up for review.^[17]The Final Act concluding the Uruguay Round and officially establishing the WTO regime was signed April 15, 1994, during the ministerial meeting atMarrakesh, Morocco, and hence is known as the Marrakesh Agreement.^[18]

The GATT still exists as the WTO’s umbrella treaty for trade in goods, updated as a result of the Uruguay Round negotiations (a distinction is made betweenGATT 1994, the updated parts of GATT, and GATT 1947, the original agreement which is still the heart of GATT 1994).^[16] GATT 1994 is not however the only legally binding agreement included via the Final Act at Marrakesh; a long list of about 60 agreements, annexes, decisions and understandings was adopted. The agreements fall into a structure with six main parts:

• The Agreement Establishing the WTO
• Goods and investment — the Multilateral Agreements on Trade in Goods including the GATT 1994 and the Trade Related Investment Measures
• Services — the General Agreement on Trade in Services
• Intellectual property — the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)
• Dispute settlement (DSU)
• Reviews of governments’ trade policies (TPRM)^[19]

[edit]Ministerial conferences

The topmost decision-making body of the WTO is the Ministerial Conference, which usually meets every two years. It brings together all members of the WTO, all of which are countries or customs unions. The Ministerial Conference can take decisions on all matters under any of the multilateral trade agreements. The inaugural ministerial conference was held in Singapore in 1996. Disagreements between largely developed and developing economies emerged during this conference over four issues initiated by this conference, which led to them being collectively referred to as the “Singapore issues“. The second ministerial conference was held in Geneva in Switzerland. The third conference in Seattle, Washington ended in failure, with massive demonstrations and police and National Guard crowd control efforts drawing worldwide attention. The fourth ministerial conference was held in Doha in the Persian Gulf nation of Qatar. The Doha Development Round was launched at the conference. The conference also approved the joining of China, which became the 143rd member to join. The fifth ministerial conference was held in Cancún, Mexico, aiming at forging agreement on the Doha round. An alliance of 22 southern states, the G20 developing nations (led by India, China,^[20] Brazil, ASEAN led by the Philippines), resisted demands from the North for agreements on the so-called “Singapore issues” and called for an end to agricultural subsidies within the EU and the US. The talks broke down without progress.

The sixth WTO ministerial conference was held in Hong Kong from 13–18 December 2005. It was considered vital if the four-year-old Doha Development Agenda negotiations were to move forward sufficiently to conclude the round in 2006. In this meeting, countries agreed to phase out all their agricultural export subsidies by the end of 2013, and terminate any cotton export subsidies by the end of 2006. Further concessions to developing countries included an agreement to introduce duty free, tariff free access for goods from the Least Developed Countries, following the Everything but Armsinitiative of the European Union — but with up to 3% of tariff lines exempted. Other major issues were left for further negotiation to be completed by the end of 2010. The WTO General Council, on 26 May 2009, agreed to hold a seventh WTO ministerial conference session in Geneva from 30 November-3 December 2009. A statement by chairman Amb. Mario Matus acknowledged that the prime purpose was to remedy a breach of protocol requiring two-yearly “regular” meetings, which had lapsed with the Doha Round failure in 2005, and that the “scaled-down” meeting would not be a negotiating session, but “emphasis will be on transparency and open discussion rather than on small group processes and informal negotiating structures”. The general theme for discussion was “The WTO, the Multilateral Trading System and the Current Global Economic Environment”^[21]

[edit]Doha Round

Main article: Doha Round

The Doha Development Round started in 2001 and continues today.

The WTO launched the current round of negotiations, the Doha Development Agenda (DDA) or Doha Round, at the fourth ministerial conference in Doha, Qatar in November 2001. The Doha round was to be an ambitious effort to make globalization more inclusive and help the world’s poor, particularly by slashing barriers and subsidies in farming.^[22] The initial agenda comprised both further trade liberalization and new rule-making, underpinned by commitments to strengthen substantial assistance to developing countries.^[23]

The negotiations have been highly contentious and agreement has not been reached, despite the intense negotiations at several ministerial conferences and at other sessions. Disagreements still continue over several key areas including agriculture subsidies.^[24]

Among the various functions of the WTO, these are regarded by analysts as the most important:[edit]Functions

• It oversees the implementation, administration and operation of the covered agreements.^[26][27]
• It provides a forum for negotiations and for settling disputes.^[28][29]

Additionally, it is the WTO’s duty to review and propagate the national trade policies, and to ensure the coherence and transparency of trade policies through surveillance in global economic policy-making.^[27][29] Another priority of the WTO is the assistance of developing, least-developed and low-income countries in transition to adjust to WTO rules and disciplines through technical cooperation and training.^[30]

The WTO is also a center of economic research and analysis: regular assessments of the global trade picture in its annual publications and research reports on specific topics are produced by the organization.^[31] Finally, the WTO cooperates closely with the two other components of the Bretton Woods system, the IMF and the World Bank.^[28]

[edit]Principles of the trading system

The WTO establishes a framework for trade policies; it does not define or specify outcomes. That is, it is concerned with setting the rules of the trade policy games.^[32] Five principles are of particular importance in understanding both the pre-1994 GATT and the WTO:

1. Non-Discrimination. It has two major components: the most favoured nation (MFN) rule, and the national treatment policy. Both are embedded in the main WTO rules on goods, services, and intellectual property, but their precise scope and nature differ across these areas. The MFN rule requires that a WTO member must apply the same conditions on all trade with other WTO members, i.e. a WTO member has to grant the most favorable conditions under which it allows trade in a certain product type to all other WTO members.^[32] ”Grant someone a special favour and you have to do the same for all other WTO members.”^[33] National treatment means that imported goods should be treated no less favorably than domestically produced goods (at least after the foreign goods have entered the market) and was introduced to tackle non-tariff barriers to trade (e.g. technical standards, security standards et al. discriminating against imported goods).^[32]
2. Reciprocity. It reflects both a desire to limit the scope of free-riding that may arise because of the MFN rule, and a desire to obtain better access to foreign markets. A related point is that for a nation to negotiate, it is necessary that the gain from doing so be greater than the gain available from unilateral liberalization; reciprocal concessions intend to ensure that such gains will materialise.^[34]
3. Binding and enforceable commitments. The tariff commitments made by WTO members in a multilateral trade negotiation and on accession are enumerated in a schedule (list) of concessions. These schedules establish “ceiling bindings”: a country can change its bindings, but only after negotiating with its trading partners, which could mean compensating them for loss of trade. If satisfaction is not obtained, the complaining country may invoke the WTO dispute settlement procedures.^[33][34]
4. Transparency. The WTO members are required to publish their trade regulations, to maintain institutions allowing for the review of administrative decisions affecting trade, to respond to requests for information by other members, and to notify changes in trade policies to the WTO. These internal transparency requirements are supplemented and facilitated by periodic country-specific reports (trade policy reviews) through the Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM).^[35] The WTO system tries also to improve predictability and stability, discouraging the use of quotas and other measures used to set limits on quantities of imports.^[33]
5. Safety valves. In specific circumstances, governments are able to restrict trade. There are three types of provisions in this direction: articles allowing for the use of trade measures to attain noneconomic objectives; articles aimed at ensuring “fair competition”; and provisions permitting intervention in trade for economic reasons.^[35] Exceptions to the MFN principle also allow for preferential treatment of developed countries, regional free trade areas and customs unions.^{[citation needed]}

[edit]Organizational structure

The General Council has multiple bodies which oversee committees in different areas, re the following:

Council for Trade in Goods

There are 11 committees under the jurisdiction of the Goods Council each with a specific task. All members of the WTO participate in the committees. The Textiles Monitoring Body is separate from the other committees but still under the jurisdiction of Goods Council. The body has its own chairman and only 10 members. The body also has several groups relating to textiles.^[36]

Council for Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights

Information on intellectual property in the WTO, news and official records of the activities of the TRIPS Council, and details of the WTO’s work with other international organizations in the field.^[37]

Council for Trade in Services

The Council for Trade in Services operates under the guidance of the General Council and is responsible for overseeing the functioning of the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). It is open to all WTO members, and can create subsidiary bodies as required.^[38]

Trade Negotiations Committee

The Trade Negotiations Committee (TNC) is the committee that deals with the current trade talks round. The chair is WTO’s director-general. The committee is currently tasked with the Doha Development Round.^[39]

The Service Council has three subsidiary bodies: financial services, domestic regulations, GATS rules and specific commitments.^[36] The General council has several different committees, working groups, and working parties.^[40] There are committees on the following: Trade and Environment; Trade and Development (Subcommittee on Least-Developed Countries); Regional Trade Agreements; Balance of Payments Restrictions; and Budget, Finance and Administration. There are working parties on the following: Accession. There are working groups on the following: Trade, debt and finance; and Trade and technology transfer.

[edit]Decision-making

The WTO describes itself as “a rules-based, member-driven organization — all decisions are made by the member governments, and the rules are the outcome of negotiations among members”.^[41]The WTO Agreement foresees votes where consensus cannot be reached, but the practice of consensus dominates the process of decision-making.^[42]

Richard Harold Steinberg (2002) argues that although the WTO’s consensus governance model provides law-based initial bargaining, trading rounds close through power-based bargaining favouringEurope and the U.S., and may not lead to Pareto improvement.^[43]

[edit]Dispute settlement

Main article: Dispute settlement in the WTO

In 1994, the WTO members agreed on the Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes (DSU) annexed to the “Final Act” signed in Marrakesh in 1994.^[44] Dispute settlement is regarded by the WTO as the central pillar of the multilateral trading system, and as a “unique contribution to the stability of the global economy”.^[45] WTO members have agreed that, if they believe fellow-members are violating trade rules, they will use the multilateral system of settling disputes instead of taking action unilaterally.^[46]

The operation of the WTO dispute settlement process involves the DSB panels, the Appellate Body, the WTO Secretariat, arbitrators, independent experts and several specialized institutions.^[47]Bodies involved in the dispute settlement process, World Trade Organization.

[edit]Accession and membership

Main article: World Trade Organization accession and membership

The process of becoming a WTO member is unique to each applicant country, and the terms of accession are dependent upon the country’s stage of economic development and current trade regime.^[48] The process takes about five years, on average, but it can last more if the country is less than fully committed to the process or if political issues interfere. The shortest accession negotiation was that of the Kyrgyz Republic, while the longest was that of the People’s Republic of China (P. Farah, Five Years of China’s WTO Membership, 263–304). Russia, having first applied to join GATT in 1993, was approved for membership in December 2011.^[49] An offer of accession is only given once consensus is reached among interested parties.^[50]

[edit]Accession process

Status of WTO negotiations:

  Members (including dual-representation with the European Union)

  Draft Working Party Report or Factual Summary adopted

  Goods and/or Services offers submitted

  Memorandum on Foreign Trade Regime (FTR) submitted

  Observer, negotiations to start later or no Memorandum on FTR submitted

  Frozen procedures or no negotiations in the last 3 years

  No official interaction with the WTO

A country wishing to accede to the WTO submits an application to the General Council, and has to describe all aspects of its trade and economic policies that have a bearing on WTO agreements.^[51] The application is submitted to the WTO in amemorandum which is examined by a working party open to all interested WTO Members.^[50]

After all necessary background information has been acquired, the working party focuses on issues of discrepancy between the WTO rules and the applicant’s international and domestic trade policies and laws. The working party determines the terms and conditions of entry into the WTO for the applicant nation, and may consider transitional periods to allow countries some leeway in complying with the WTO rules.^[48]

The final phase of accession involves bilateral negotiations between the applicant nation and other working party members regarding the concessions and commitments on tariff levels and market access for goods and services. The new member’s commitments are to apply equally to all WTO members under normal non-discrimination rules, even though they are negotiated bilaterally.^[51]

When the bilateral talks conclude, the working party sends to the general council or ministerial conference an accession package, which includes a summary of all the working party meetings, the Protocol of Accession (a draft membership treaty), and lists (“schedules”) of the member-to-be’s commitments. Once the general council or ministerial conference approves of the terms of accession, the applicant’s parliament must ratify the Protocol of Accession before it can become a member.^[52]

[edit]Members and observers

The WTO has 157 members and 26 observers.^[53] In addition to states, the European Union is also a member. WTO members do not have to be full sovereign nation-members. Instead, they must be a customs territory with full autonomy in the conduct of their external commercial relations. Thus Hong Kong (as “Hong Kong, China” since 1997) became a GATT contracting party, and the Republic of China (Taiwan) acceded to the WTO in 2002 as “Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu” (Chinese Taipei) despite its disputed status.^[54] The WTO Secretariat omits the official titles (such as Counselor, First Secretary, Second Secretary and Third Secretary) of the members of Chinese Taipei’s Permanent Mission to the WTO, except for the titles of the Permanent Representative and the Deputy Permanent Representative.^[55]

Iran is the biggest economy outside the WTO.^[56] With the exception of the Holy See, observers must start accession negotiations within five years of becoming observers. Some international intergovernmental organizations are also granted observer status to WTO bodies.^[57] 14 states and two territories so far have no official interaction with the WTO.

[edit]Agreements

Main article: Uruguay Round

The WTO oversees about 60 different agreements which have the status of international legal texts. Member countries must sign and ratify all WTO agreements on accession.^[58] A discussion of some of the most important agreements follows. The Agreement on Agriculture came into effect with the establishment of the WTO at the beginning of 1995. The AoA has three central concepts, or “pillars”: domestic support, market access and export subsidies. The General Agreement on Trade in Services was created to extend the multilateral trading system to service sector, in the same way theGeneral Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) provides such a system for merchandise trade. The Agreement entered into force in January 1995. The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights sets down minimum standards for many forms of intellectual property (IP) regulation. It was negotiated at the end of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1994.

The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures — also known as the SPS Agreement was negotiated during the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, and entered into force with the establishment of the WTO at the beginning of 1995. Under the SPS agreement, the WTO sets constraints on members’ policies relating to food safety (bacterial contaminants, pesticides, inspection and labelling) as well as animal and plant health (imported pests and diseases). The Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade is an international treaty of the World Trade Organization. It was negotiated during the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, and entered into force with the establishment of the WTO at the end of 1994. The object ensures that technical negotiations and standards, as well as testing and certification procedures, do not create unnecessary obstacles to trade”.^[59] The Agreement on Customs Valuation, formally known as the Agreement on Implementation of Article VII of GATT, prescribes methods of customs valuation that Members are to follow. Chiefly, it adopts the “transaction value” approach.

[edit]Effectiveness

Main article: Criticism of the World Trade Organization

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[edit]Directors-General

The Directors-General of the WTO have been:^[60]

• Pascal Lamy, 2005–
• Supachai Panitchpakdi, 2002–2005
• Mike Moore, 1999–2002
• Renato Ruggiero, 1995–1999
• Peter Sutherland, 1995

The Directors-General of the precursor organization, GATT, were:

• Peter Sutherland, 1993–1995
• Arthur Dunkel, 1980–1993
• Olivier Long, 1968–1980
• Eric Wyndham White, 1948–1968

“ជាប់គុកមួយជីវិត”​សម្រាប់​កាំង ហ្គេចអ៊ាវ​ហៅឌុច​

ប្រភព៖  RFI (http://www.khmer.rfi.fr/la-pertetuite-pour-le-khmer-rouge-Duch)

កម្ពុជា -

អត្ថបទចុះ​ផ្សាយ​នៅ​ថ្ងៃ សុក្រ 03 កុម្ភៈ 2012 – ព័ត៌មានទើប​កែប្រើ​លើកចុងក្រោយ​ ថ្ងៃ សុក្រ 03 កុម្ភៈ 2012

កាំង​ ហ្គេចអ៊ាវ​ ហៅឌុច​ មេគុក​ទួលស្លែង​ឬស២១​ ​

© Reuters

ដោយ សៀក សារិន

ឌុច​ មេគុក​ស២១​នៅក្នុង​ទីក្រុង​ភ្នំពេញ​ក្រោមរបប​ខ្មែរក្រហម​ ​ ដែល​នៅទីនោះ​ ​ មាន​មនុស្ស​ប្រមាណ​១៥ ០០០នាក់​ ​ បានត្រូវ​មេគុក​ឌុច​ធ្វើទណ្ឌកម្ម​និង​សម្លាប់យ៉ាង​ឃោរឃៅ។​ នៅ​ថ្ងៃសុក្រ​ទី៣កុម្ភៈ​នេះ​ ​ តុលាការ​កំពូល​ឧបត្ថម្ភ​ដោយ​អង្គការ​សហប្រជាជាតិ​បាន​សម្រេច​កាត់ទោស​ឲ្យ​ឌុច​ជាប់គុក​មួយជីវិត។

សេចក្តីរាយការណ៍របស់​ សៀក សារិន ស្តាប់ (02:13) 03/02/2012 by សៀក សារិន

ឌុច​ដែលជា​អតីត​មេគុក​ទួលស្លែង​ឬ​ស២១​ដែលជា​ពន្ធនាគារ​ដ៏ធំ​នៅក្នុង​ទីក្រុង​ភ្នំពេញ​ ​ ក្រោមរបប​ខ្មែរក្រហម​ (​ឆ្នាំ១៩៧៥-១៩៧៩​) ​ ​បានត្រូវ​គេចាប់​ខ្លួន​នៅឆ្នាំ១៩៩៩​ ពោលគឺ​២០ឆ្នាំ​ក្រោយពី​របប​ខ្មែរក្រហម​ដ៏សាហាវ​ឃោរឃៅ​បាន​ដួលរលំ។​ កាំង​ ហ្គេចអ៊ាវ​ហៅឌុច​ក៏​បាន​ត្រូវ​តុលាការ​ឧបត្ថម្ភ​ដោយ​អង្គការ​សហប្រជាជាតិ​កាត់ទោស​ជាលើក​ដំបូង​ឲ្យ​ “ជាប់គុក​៣០ឆ្នាំ​”​ នៅ​ខែកក្កដា​ឆ្នាំ២០១០​ពី​បទឧក្រិដ្ឋកម្ម​សង្គ្រាម​និង​ឧក្រិដ្ឋកម្ម​ប្រឆាំង​មនុស្សជាតិ។

បន្ទាប់មក​ ​ ឌុច​និង​មេធាវី​ក៏​បាន​ប្តឹង​តវ៉ា​ទៅ​សាលា​កំពូល​សុំ​រួចខ្លួន​ពី​ពន្ធនាគារ​ ​ ដោយ​អះ អាង ថា​ ​ ខ្លួន​ពុំមែន​ជា​មេដឹកនាំ​ធំដុំ​នៅក្នុង​របប​ខ្មែរក្រហម​ ​ ហើយគ្មាន​តួនាទី​អ្វី​សំខាន់​ឡើយ។​ ទង្វើ​អ្វីៗ​ដែល​ខ្លួន​បាន​ប្រព្រឹត្ត​នៅ​ក្នុង​គុក​ទួលស្លែង​គឺ​ធ្វើតាម​តែ​ការបញ្ជា​របស់​ថ្នាក់លើ​តែ ប៉ុណ្ណោះ។

ក៏ប៉ុន្តែ​ ​ នៅ​ថ្ងៃសុក្រ​ទី៣កុម្ភៈ​នេះ​ តុលាការ​កំពូល​បាន​សម្រេច​កាត់ទោស​ឲ្យ​ឌុច​ “​ជាប់គុក​មួយជីវិត​”​ ទៅវិញ​ ​ ដោយ​តុលាការ​កំពូល​យល់ថា​ ​ ការ​កាត់ទោស​ជាលើក​ដំបូង​ឲ្យ​ “ជាប់គុក​៣០ឆ្នាំ​”​ជាទោស​មាន​លក្ខណៈ​ស្រាលពេក​ ​ ពុំស្មើនឹង​កម្រិត​ឧក្រិដ្ឋកម្ម​ដ៏​ធ្ងន់ធ្ងរ​ដែលបាន​ប្រព្រឹត្ត​ដោយ​ កាំង​ ហ្គេចអ៊ាវ​ ហៅឌុច​ មេគុក​ទួលស្លែង​ឬស២១​ ​ ដែល​នៅទីនោះ​មាន​មនុស្ស​ប្រមាណ​១៥ ០០០នាក់​ ​ បានត្រូវ​មេគុក​ឌុច​ធ្វើទណ្ឌកម្ម​និង​សម្លាប់​យ៉ាង​ឃោរឃៅ។

ឌុច​ដែលមាន​អាយុ​៦៩ឆ្នាំ​ ​ ពាក់អាវស​ នៅពេល​ឮ​តុលាការ​កំពូល​សម្រេច​កាត់ទោស​ឲ្យ​”ជាប់គុក​មួយជីវិត​”​ ​ ពុំបាន​ចេញស្ដី​អ្វីឡើយ​។​ គួរបញ្ជាក់ថា​ ​ ការ​កាត់ទោស​ជាលើក​ដំបូង​ដោយ​តុលាការ​ឲ្យ​ឌុច​ “ជាប់គុក​៣០ឆ្នាំ​”​ ​ អាច​អនុញ្ញាត​ឲ្យ​មេគុក​ទួលស្លែង​ហៅឌុច​រួចខ្លួន​ចេញពី​ពន្ធនាគារ​ក្នុងរយៈ​ពេល​១៨ឆ្នាំ​ខាងមុខ​ នៅពេល​ដែល​ឌុច​មាន​អាយុ​៨៧ឆ្នាំ​ ​ ដោយហេតុថា​ ឌុច​បាន​ត្រូវ​គេចាប់​ឃុំឃាំង​អស់​រយៈកាល​១២ឆ្នាំ​រួចមកហើយ។

នេះ​ក៏ជា​កត្តា​មួយ​នាំឲ្យ​តុលាការ​កំពូល​សម្រេច​កាត់ទោស​ឲ្យឌុច​ “ជាប់គុក​មួយជីវិត​” ។​ ហើយម្យ៉ាងទៀត​ ​ ការកាត់ទោស​ជាលើក​ដំបូង​ឲ្យ​ឌុច​ “ជាប់គុក​៣០ឆ្នាំ​”​ នៅ​ខែកក្កដា​ឆ្នាំ២០១០​ពី​បទឧក្រិដ្ឋកម្ម​សង្គ្រាម​និង​ឧក្រិដ្ឋកម្ម​ប្រឆាំង​មនុស្សជាតិ​ ​ ជាការ​កាត់ទោស​មាន​លក្ខណៈ​ស្រាលពេក​ ​ ពុំសមស្រប​នឹង​ទម្ងន់​នៃ​ឧក្រិដ្ឋកម្ម​ដែលបាន​ប្រព្រឹត្ត​ដោយ​មេគុក​ទួលស្លែង​ហៅឌុច​ឡើយ៕

TAGS: កម្ពុជា - តុលាការខ្មែរក្រហម - នយោបាយ

អតីតអ្នក​ទោស​មក​លក់​សៀវភៅ​នៅ​កន្លែង​ខ្លួន​រង​ទារុណ​កម្ម​ពី​មុន

អតីតអ្នក​ទោស​មក​លក់​សៀវភៅ​នៅ​កន្លែង​ខ្លួន​រង​ទារុណ​កម្ម​ពី​មុន.

២០១១ ៖ វិស័យធនាគារ​កម្ពុជា​មាន​សុខភាពល្អ​

ប្រភព​ ៖ RFI ( http://www.khmer.rfi.fr/cambodia/20120125-interview-with-cambodian-bank)

ពុធ 25 មករា 2012

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ពាក្យគន្លឹះ : កម្ពុជា - សេដ្ឋកិច្ច

សំណួរ-ចម្លើយ​ជុំវិញ​ការ​លក់​ភាគហ៊ុន​ជា​សាធារណៈ​របស់ Facebook

ប្រភព៖ RFI

(http://www.khmer.rfi.fr/questions-and-answers-about-facebook-ipo)

អត្ថបទចុះ​ផ្សាយ​នៅ​ថ្ងៃ ព្រហស្បតិ៍ 02 កុម្ភៈ 2012

- ព័ត៌មានទើប​កែប្រើ​លើកចុងក្រោយ​ ថ្ងៃ ព្រហស្បតិ៍ 02 កុម្ភៈ 2012

លោក Mark Zuckerberg អគ្គនាយក និង​ជា​អ្នក​បង្កើត​ Facebook

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ដោយ សេង ឌីណា

កាលពីថ្ងៃ​ពុធ ១ កុម្ភៈ ម្សិលមិញ​នេះ Facebook ដែល​ជា​បណ្តាញ​សង្គម​តាម​អ៊ីនធ័រនែត​ដ៏ធំបំផុត នៅលើពិភពលោក បាន​បញ្ជូន​សំណុំឯកសារជាផ្លូវការ ទៅកាន់​គណៈកម្មការ​មូលបត្រ​អាមេរិក (SEC) ដើម្បី​សុំ​លក់​ភាគហ៊ុន នៅលើទីផ្សារ​មូលបត្រ។ ខាងក្រោម​នេះ គឺ​ជា​សំណួរ-ចម្លើយ​ជុំវិញ​ការ​​បោះជំហាន​ចូល​ទីផ្សារ​មូលបត្រ​របស់​ Facebook ។

ការពន្យល់​របស់​សេង ឌីណា ស្តាប់ (06:07) 02/02/2012

តើ​ Facebook គ្រោង​លក់​ភាគហ៊ុន​ប៉ុន្មាន?

Facebook មាន​គោលដៅ​ប្រមូល​លុយ​ឲ្យ​បាន ៥ពាន់លាន​ដុល្លារ ពី​ការ​លក់​ភាគហ៊ុន​ជាសាធារណៈ​ជាលើក​ដំបូង (Initial Public Offering) ​នេះ។ ចំនួននេះ​តិច​ជាង​ការ​រំពឹង​ទុក​ពីពេលមុន (១០ពាន់លាន​ដុល្លារ) ក៏ប៉ុន្តែ នៅតែ​ច្រើន​ជាង​​ការលក់​ភាគហ៊ុន​ដំបូង​របស់​ក្រុមហ៊ុន​អ៊ីនធ័រនែត​ផ្សេងៗ​ទៀត នាពេល​កន្លងមក។

នៅពេល​លក់​ភាគហ៊ុន​ជា​សាធារណៈ​លើក​ដំបូង កាលពី​ឆ្នាំ​២០០៤ Google លក់​បាន​តែ ១​ ៦៧០​លាន​ដុល្លារ​​ប៉ុណ្ណោះ។
 
តើ​ភាគហ៊ុន​របស់ Facebook មាន​តម្លៃ​ប៉ុន្មាន?
 
នៅក្នុង​ឯកសារ​ដែល​បញ្ជូន​ទៅ​គណៈកម្មការ​មូលបត្រ Facebook មិនទាន់​បាន​កំណត់​តម្លៃ​ភាគហ៊ុន ដែល​ត្រូវ​លក់​នៅឡើយទេ។ ចំនួន​ពិតប្រាកដ នៃ​​ភាគហ៊ុន ដែល​ត្រូវ​ដាក់លក់​ជា​សាធារណៈ ក៏​ Facebook មាន​បាន​បញ្ជាក់​នៅ​ក្នុង​ឯកសារ​​នេះ​ដែរ។​

នៅពេលបច្ចុប្បន្ន​នេះ គេ​ប៉ាន់ប្រមាណ​ថា ភាគហ៊ុន Facebook មាន​តម្លៃ ២៩,៧៣​ដុល្លារ ក្នុង​មួយ​ហ៊ុន។ ប៉ុន្តែ អ្នកខ្លះ​បានព្យាករ​ថា ភាគហ៊ុន​នេះ​អាច​នឹង​មាន​តម្លៃ​រហូតដល់​ទៅ ៤០ដុល្លារ ក្នុងមួយ​ហ៊ុន នៅពេល​ចាប់ផ្តើម​លក់​នៅលើ​ទីផ្សារ​មូលបត្រ។ ទោះជាយ៉ាងណា ទាំងនេះ គ្រាន់តែ​ការ​ប៉ាន់ស្មាន​តែ​ប៉ុណ្ណោះ។
 
នៅពេលណា ទើបគេ​អាច​​ចាប់ផ្តើម​ទិញភាគហ៊ុន​របស់ Facebook បាន?
 
កាលពី​ថ្ងៃ​ពុធ ម្សិលមិញ​នេះ Facebook គ្រាន់តែ​បញ្ជូន​ឯកសារ ដើម្បី​សុំ​លក់​ភាគហ៊ុន ប៉ុន្តែ នៅមិនទាន់​ចាប់ផ្តើម​លក់​ភាគហ៊ុន​នៅឡើយទេ។ ដូច្នេះ គេនៅមិនទាន់​អាច​ទិញ​ភាគហ៊ុន Facebook បាន​នៅឡើយទេ នៅពេលនេះ។ គេត្រូវ​រង់ចាំ​យ៉ាងតិច ៣ខែ​ទៀត (​ក្រោយ​​ថ្ងៃ​ទី២ ឧសភា) ទើប​ Facebook ចាប់ផ្តើម​លក់​ភាគហ៊ុន​។
 
តើ Facebook មាន​ប្រាក់​ចំណូល និង​ប្រាក់​ចំណេញ​​ប៉ុន្មាន​ក្នុងមួយឆ្នាំៗ?
 
ចាប់ពីពេលនេះ​ទៅ ដោយ​​ Facebook ចង់​លក់​ភាគហ៊ុន​ នៅ​ក្នុង​ទីផ្សារ​មូលបត្រ Facebook មាន​កាតព្វកិច្ច​ផ្សព្វផ្សាយ​ជា​សាធារណៈ​ នូវ​ស្ថានភាព​ហិរញ្ញវត្ថុ និង​សកម្មភាព​ជំនួញ​របស់​ខ្លួន។

នៅ​ក្នុង​ឯកសារ ដែល​​បញ្ជូន​ទៅ​គណៈកម្មការ​មូលបត្រ Facebook បាន​បង្ហាញ​ថា៖

• ប្រាក់ចំណូល​ប្រចាំ​ឆ្នាំ ២០១១ មាន ៣ ៧១១​​លាន​ដុល្លារ​
• ប្រាក់​ចំណេញ​សុទ្ធ នៅ​ឆ្នាំ​២០១១ មាន ១០០០​លាន​ដុល្លារ
• អ្នក​ប្រើប្រាស់សកម្ម​​ប្រចាំ​ខែ (Monthly active users) មាន ៨៤៥​លាន​នាក់ នៅ​ខែ​ធ្នូ ២០១១
• អ្នក​ប្រើប្រាស់​សកម្ម​ប្រចាំ​ថ្ងៃ (Daily active users) មាន ៤៨៣លាន​នាក់

 
តើ​ប្រភពចំណូល​របស់ Facebook បាន​មក​ពីណា?
 
ប្រភពចំណូល​ធំបំផុត​របស់ Facebook គឺ​បាន​មក​ពី​ការ​ផ្សព្វផ្សាយ​ពាណិជ្ជកម្ម (Online advertisement)។ នៅ​ឆ្នាំ​២០១១ ប្រាក់ចំណូល ដែល​បាន​មក​ពី​ការ​ផ្សព្វផ្សាយ​ពាណិជ្ជកម្ម​ មាន​រហូតដល់​ទៅ ៣ ១៥០ ​​លាន​ដុល្លារ​ ពោលគឺ ប្រមាណ ៨៥% នៃ​ប្រាក់​ចំណុល​សរុប​ប្រចាំ​ឆ្នាំ។

ប្រភព​ចំណូល​ធំ​ទីពីរ គឺ​បាន​មក​ពី​​ក្រុមហ៊ុន Zynga (១២% នៃ​ប្រាក់​ចំណូល​សរុប​ប្រចាំ​ឆ្នាំ​២០១១)។ Zynga គឺ​ជា​ក្រុមហ៊ុន​ផលិត​ល្បែង​លើ​អ៊ីនធ័រនែត (Online Game) ដែល​​គេច្រើន​លេង​នៅលើ​ Facebook ដូចជា FarmVille, CastleVille, CityVille, Mafia Wars, Café World ។ល។

តើ​ក្រុមហ៊ុន Facebook មាន​តម្លៃ​ប៉ុន្មាន?​
 
វា​​អាស្រ័យ​ទៅលើ​​តម្លៃភាគហ៊ុន Facebook ដែល​អ្នក​វិនិយោគហ៊ាន​ឲ្យ នៅពេល​ដែល​ភាគហ៊ុន​​​ត្រូវ​ដាក់​លក់​នៅលើ​ទីផ្សារ នៅ​ក្នុងរយៈពេល​ប៉ុន្មាន​ខែ​ខាងមុខ។

ក៏ប៉ុន្តែ នៅពេលនេះ គេរំពឹង​ថា ក្រោយ​ពេល​ចូល​ក្នុង​ទីផ្សារ​មូលបត្រ ក្រុមហ៊ុន Facebook អាច​នឹង​មាន​តម្លៃ​រហូតដល់​ទៅ ១០០ពាន់លាន​ដុល្លារ។ បើសិន​ជា​ពិតជាដូចនេះ​មែន Facebook ដែល​ទើប​នឹង​បង្កើត​បាន​ ៨​ឆ្នាំ​នេះ នឹង​មាន​តម្លៃ​ខ្ពស់ជាង​ក្រុមហ៊ុន​ធំៗ​ និង​ចំណាស់ៗ​របស់​អាមេរិក ដូចជា Amazon, Caterpillar, Goldman Sachs, Ford Motor និង Boeing ជាដើម។

តើ​​អគ្គនាយក និង​ស្ថាបនិក​ Facebook (Mark Zuckerberg) មាន​ភាគហ៊ុន​ប៉ុន្មាន​?
 
លោក Mark Zuckerberg មាន​ចំណែកហ៊ុន​ ២៨,៤% ក្នុង​ក្រុមហ៊ុន​ Facebook ហើយ​ទទួល​បាន​ប្រាក់ចំណូល​ពី Facebook (ទាំង​ប្រាក់ខែ និង​ប្រាក់​ចំណូល​ផ្សេងទៀត) ចំនួន ១ ៤៩០ ០០០​ដុល្លារ (ឆ្នាំ​២០១១)។

ប្រសិន​បើ​តម្លៃ​ក្រុមហ៊ុន Facebook ពិត​ជា​កើនឡើង​រហូតដល់ ១០០ពាន់លាន​ដុល្លារ ដូច​គេ​រំពឹង​ទុកមែន ភាគហ៊ុន​របស់​លោក Mark Zuckerberg ក្នុង​ក្រុមហ៊ុន Facebook នឹង​មាន​តម្លៃ​រហូតដល់​ទៅ​ជាង ២៨ពាន់លាន​ដុល្លារ។ លោក Zuckerberg នឹង​ត្រូវក្លាយ​ជា​មហាសេដ្ឋី​ ដែលមាន​ទ្រព្យសម្បត្តិ​ច្រើន​ជាងគេ​ លំដាប់​ទី ៤ នៅ​សហរដ្ឋ​អាមេរិក និង ទី៩ នៅទូទាំង​ពិភពលោក។ សូម្បីតែ​បុគ្គលិក​របស់​ក្រុមហ៊ុន Facebook ក៏​អាច​ក្លាយ​ជា​សេដ្ឋី ដែលមាន​ទ្រព្យសម្បត្តិ​រាប់លាន​ដុល្លារ​ដែរ៕

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