ណារ៉ា ពាណិជ្ជកម្មអន្តរជាតិ

ណារ៉ា ពាណិជ្ជកម្មអន្តរជាតិ.

តួនាទី​នៃ​ក្រុមប្រឹក្សា​ធម្មនុញ្ញ

តួនាទីនៃក្រុមប្រឹក្សាធម្មនុញ្ញ.

World Intellectual Property Organization

ប្រភព៖ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Intellectual_Property_

Organization)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

World Intellectual Property Organization
WIPO logo
Org type	Specialized Agency
Acronyms	WIPO
Head	Director-General of WIPO Francis Gurry
Status	Active
Established	July 14, 1967
Website	www.wipo.int

WIPO members

  Members

  Non-members

Francis Gurry in 2011

The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is one of the 17 specialized agencies of the United Nations. WIPO was created in 1967 “to encourage creative activity, to promote the protection of intellectual property throughout the world”.^[1]

WIPO currently has 185 member states,^[2] administers 24 international treaties,^[3] and is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. The current Director-General of WIPO is Francis Gurry, who took office on October 1, 2008.^[4] 183 of the UN Members as well as the Holy See are Members of WIPO. Non-members are the states of Cook Islands, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Solomon Islands, Timor-Leste,Tuvalu, Vanuatu and the states with limited recognition. Palestine has observer status.^[5]

Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Criticism 3 Information network 4 See also 5 Notes and references 6 External links

[edit]History

The predecessor to WIPO was the BIRPI (Bureaux Internationaux Réunis pour la Protection de la Propriété Intellectuelle, French acronym for United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property), which had been established in 1893 to administer the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works and the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property.

WIPO was formally created by the Convention Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization, which entered into force on April 26, 1970. Under Article 3 of this Convention, WIPO seeks to “promote the protection of intellectual property throughout the world.” WIPO became a specialized agency of the UN in 1974. The Agreement between the United Nations and the World Intellectual Property Organization^[6] notes in Article 1 that WIPO is responsible

“for promoting creative intellectual activity and for facilitating the transfer of technology related to industrial property to the developing countries in order to accelerate economic, social and cultural development, subject to the competence and responsibilities of the United Nations and its organs, particularly the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, the United Nations Development Programme and the United Nations Industrial Development Organization, as well as of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and of other agencies within the United Nations system.”

The Agreement marked a transition for WIPO from the mandate it inherited in 1967 from BIRPI, to promote the protection of intellectual property, to one that in theory involved the more complex task of promoting technology transfer and economic development. ^[7] However, these two mission are often not compatible. ^[8]

Unlike other branches of the United Nations, WIPO has significant financial resources independent of the contributions from its Member States. In 2006, over 90% of its income of just over CHF 250 million^[9] was expected to be generated from the collection of fees by the International Bureau (IB) under the intellectual property application and registration systems which it administers (the Patent Cooperation Treaty, the Madrid system for trade marks and theHague system for industrial designs).

[edit]Criticism

As with all United Nations multi-government forums, WIPO is not an elected body. WIPO usually attempts to reach decisions by consensus, but in any vote, each Member State is entitled to one vote, regardless of population or contribution to the funding. This has highlighted a disagreement over certain issues, due to the North-South divide in the politics of intellectual property. During the 1960s and 1970s, developing nations were able to block expansions to intellectual property treaties, such as universal pharmaceutical patents which might have occurred through WIPO^[vague]

In the 1980s, this led to the United States and other developed countries “forum shifting” intellectual property standard-setting out of WIPO and into theGeneral Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, which later evolved into the World Trade Organization, where the North had greater control of the agenda. This strategy eventually resulted in the enactment ofAgreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS).^{[citation needed]}

Much of the work at WIPO is done through committees, including the Standing Committee on Patents (SCP), the Standing Committee on Copyright and Related Rights (SCCR), the Advisory Committee on Enforcement (ACE), and the Intergovernmental Committee (IGC) on Access to Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore, and the Working Group on Reform of the Patent Cooperation Treaty.^[who?]

In October 2004, WIPO agreed to adopt a proposal offered by Argentina and Brazil, the “Proposal for the Establishment of a Development Agenda for WIPO” – from the Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization.^[10] This proposal was well supported by developing countries. A number of civil society bodies have been working on a draft Access to Knowledge (A2K)^[11] Treaty which they would like to see introduced.

The Washington Post reported in 2003 that Lois Boland (USPTO Director of International Relations) said “that open-source software runs counter to the mission of WIPO, which is to promote intellectual-property rights.” Also saying, “To hold a meeting which has as its purpose to disclaim or waive such rights seems to us to be contrary to the goals of WIPO.”^[12]

[edit]Information network

WIPO has established WIPOnet, a global information network. The project seeks to link over 300 intellectual property offices (IP offices) in all WIPO Member States. In addition to providing a means of secure communication among all connected parties, WIPOnet is the foundation for WIPO’s intellectual property services.^[13]

[edit]See also

• Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement
• Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization
• Intellectual property
• List of parties to international copyright agreements
• Substantive Patent Law Treaty (SPLT)
• Treaties administered by the World Intellectual Property Organization
• Uniform Domain-Name Dispute-Resolution Policy
• World Intellectual Property Day (April 26)
• World Intellectual Wealth Organisation

[edit]Notes and references

1. ^ Convention Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization, [1] signed at Stockholm on July 14, 1967, Preamble, second paragraph.
2. ^ List of members states of WIPO. Consulted on February 2, 2012.
3. ^ Treates administered by WIPO. Consulted on September 11, 2008.
4. ^ WIPO web site, Francis Gurry is appointed Director General of WIPO, News Archive 2008. Consulted on September 27, 2008.
5. ^ Palestine WIPO status
6. ^ Agreement between the United Nations and the World Intellectual Property Organization
7. ^ p12, Shabalala et al. “A Citizen’s Guide to WIPO” CIEL 2007. Available at:http://www.ciel.org/Publications/CitizensGuide_WIPO_Oct07.pdf
8. ^ Helpman, Elhanan (1990) Innovation, Imitation, and Intelectual Property Rightshttp://www.nber.org/papers/w4081.pdf?new_window=1
9. ^ Proposed program and budget 2006/2007 estimates 456m fee income out of total 531m income for the biennium, WO/PBC/8/3
10. ^ Consumer Project on Technology web site, Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization
11. ^ Consumer Project on Technology web site, Access to Knowledge (A2K)
12. ^ Jonathan Krim, The Quiet War Over Open-Source, The Washington Post, August 21, 2003
13. ^ United Nations Multilingual Terminology Database, Entry on World Intellectual Property Organization. Consulted on February 24, 2008.

[edit]External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: World Intellectual Property Organization

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: World Intellectual Property Organization

• World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) website

• List of member states

World Trade Organization

ប្រភព៖ (​​​http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wto)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

  (Redirected from Wto)

“WTO” redirects here. For other uses, see WTO (disambiguation).

The organization is currently endeavoring to persist with a trade negotiation called the Doha Development Agenda (or Doha Round), which was launched in 2001 to enhance equitable participation of poorer countries which represent a majority of the world’s population. However, the negotiation has been dogged by “disagreement between exporters of agricultural bulk commodities and countries with large numbers of subsistence farmers on the precise terms of a ‘special safeguard measure’ to protect farmers from surges in imports. At this time, the future of the Doha Round is uncertain.”^[6]The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an organization that intends to supervise and liberalize international trade. The organization officially commenced on January 1, 1995 under the Marrakech Agreement, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which commenced in 1948. The organization deals with regulation of trade between participating countries; it provides a framework for negotiating and formalizing trade agreements, and a dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participants’ adherence to WTO agreements which are signed by representatives of member governments and ratified by their parliaments.^[4][5] Most of the issues that the WTO focuses on derive from previous trade negotiations, especially from the Uruguay Round (1986–1994).

Contents [hide] 1 History 1.1 GATT rounds of negotiations 1.2 Ministerial conferences 1.3 Doha Round 2 Functions 3 Principles of the trading system 4 Organizational structure 5 Decision-making 6 Dispute settlement 7 Accession and membership 7.1 Accession process 7.2 Members and observers 8 Agreements 9 Effectiveness 10 Directors-General 11 See also 12 Notes 13 External links

[edit]History

Harry White (l) and John Maynard Keynes at the Bretton Woods Conference — Both economists had been strong advocates of a liberal international trade environment, and recommended the establishment of three institutions: the IMF (fiscal and monetary issues), the World Bank (financial and structural issues), and the ITO (international economic cooperation).^[7]

The WTO’s predecessor, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), was established after World War II in the wake of other new multilateral institutions dedicated to international economic cooperation — notably the Bretton Woods institutions known as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. A comparable international institution for trade, named the International Trade Organization was successfully negotiated. The ITO was to be a United Nations specialized agency and would address not only trade barriers but other issues indirectly related to trade, including employment, investment, restrictive business practices, and commodity agreements. But the ITO treaty was not approved by the U.S. and a few other signatories and never went into effect.^[8][9][10]

In the absence of an international organization for trade, the GATT would over the years “transform itself” into a de facto international organization.^[11]

[edit]GATT rounds of negotiations

See also: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

The GATT was the only multilateral instrument governing international trade from 1947 until the WTO was established in 1995.^[12] Despite attempts in the mid 1950s and 1960s to create some form of institutional mechanism for international trade, the GATT continued to operate for almost half a century as a semi-institutionalized multilateral treaty regime on a provisional basis.^[13]

[edit]From Geneva to Tokyo

Seven rounds of negotiations occurred under GATT. The first real GATT trade rounds concentrated on further reducing tariffs. Then, the Kennedy Round in the mid-sixties brought about a GATT anti-dumping Agreement and a section on development. The Tokyo Round during the seventies was the first major attempt to tackle trade barriers that do not take the form of tariffs, and to improve the system, adopting a series of agreements on non-tariff barriers, which in some cases interpreted existing GATT rules, and in others broke entirely new ground. Because these plurilateral agreements were not accepted by the full GATT membership, they were often informally called “codes”. Several of these codes were amended in the Uruguay Round, and turned into multilateral commitments accepted by all WTO members. Only four remained plurilateral (those on government procurement, bovine meat, civil aircraft and dairy products), but in 1997 WTO members agreed to terminate the bovine meat and dairy agreements, leaving only two.^[12]

[edit]Uruguay Round

During the Doha Round, the US government blamed Brazil and India for being inflexible, and the EU for impeding agricultural imports.^[14] The Ex-President of Brazil, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, responded to the criticisms by arguing that progress would only be achieved if the richest countries (especially the US and countries in the EU) make deeper cuts in their agricultural subsidies, and further open their markets for agricultural goods.^[15]

Main article: Uruguay Round

Well before GATT’s 40th anniversary, its members concluded that the GATT system was straining to adapt to a new globalizing world economy.^[16][17] In response to the problems identified in the 1982 Ministerial Declaration (structural deficiencies, spill-over impacts of certain countries’ policies on world trade GATT could not manage etc.), the eighth GATT round — known as the Uruguay Round — was launched in September 1986, in Punta del Este, Uruguay.^[16]

It was the biggest negotiating mandate on trade ever agreed: the talks were going to extend the trading system into several new areas, notably trade in services and intellectual property, and to reform trade in the sensitive sectors of agriculture and textiles; all the original GATT articles were up for review.^[17]The Final Act concluding the Uruguay Round and officially establishing the WTO regime was signed April 15, 1994, during the ministerial meeting atMarrakesh, Morocco, and hence is known as the Marrakesh Agreement.^[18]

The GATT still exists as the WTO’s umbrella treaty for trade in goods, updated as a result of the Uruguay Round negotiations (a distinction is made betweenGATT 1994, the updated parts of GATT, and GATT 1947, the original agreement which is still the heart of GATT 1994).^[16] GATT 1994 is not however the only legally binding agreement included via the Final Act at Marrakesh; a long list of about 60 agreements, annexes, decisions and understandings was adopted. The agreements fall into a structure with six main parts:

• The Agreement Establishing the WTO
• Goods and investment — the Multilateral Agreements on Trade in Goods including the GATT 1994 and the Trade Related Investment Measures
• Services — the General Agreement on Trade in Services
• Intellectual property — the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)
• Dispute settlement (DSU)
• Reviews of governments’ trade policies (TPRM)^[19]

[edit]Ministerial conferences

The topmost decision-making body of the WTO is the Ministerial Conference, which usually meets every two years. It brings together all members of the WTO, all of which are countries or customs unions. The Ministerial Conference can take decisions on all matters under any of the multilateral trade agreements. The inaugural ministerial conference was held in Singapore in 1996. Disagreements between largely developed and developing economies emerged during this conference over four issues initiated by this conference, which led to them being collectively referred to as the “Singapore issues“. The second ministerial conference was held in Geneva in Switzerland. The third conference in Seattle, Washington ended in failure, with massive demonstrations and police and National Guard crowd control efforts drawing worldwide attention. The fourth ministerial conference was held in Doha in the Persian Gulf nation of Qatar. The Doha Development Round was launched at the conference. The conference also approved the joining of China, which became the 143rd member to join. The fifth ministerial conference was held in Cancún, Mexico, aiming at forging agreement on the Doha round. An alliance of 22 southern states, the G20 developing nations (led by India, China,^[20] Brazil, ASEAN led by the Philippines), resisted demands from the North for agreements on the so-called “Singapore issues” and called for an end to agricultural subsidies within the EU and the US. The talks broke down without progress.

The sixth WTO ministerial conference was held in Hong Kong from 13–18 December 2005. It was considered vital if the four-year-old Doha Development Agenda negotiations were to move forward sufficiently to conclude the round in 2006. In this meeting, countries agreed to phase out all their agricultural export subsidies by the end of 2013, and terminate any cotton export subsidies by the end of 2006. Further concessions to developing countries included an agreement to introduce duty free, tariff free access for goods from the Least Developed Countries, following the Everything but Armsinitiative of the European Union — but with up to 3% of tariff lines exempted. Other major issues were left for further negotiation to be completed by the end of 2010. The WTO General Council, on 26 May 2009, agreed to hold a seventh WTO ministerial conference session in Geneva from 30 November-3 December 2009. A statement by chairman Amb. Mario Matus acknowledged that the prime purpose was to remedy a breach of protocol requiring two-yearly “regular” meetings, which had lapsed with the Doha Round failure in 2005, and that the “scaled-down” meeting would not be a negotiating session, but “emphasis will be on transparency and open discussion rather than on small group processes and informal negotiating structures”. The general theme for discussion was “The WTO, the Multilateral Trading System and the Current Global Economic Environment”^[21]

[edit]Doha Round

Main article: Doha Round

The Doha Development Round started in 2001 and continues today.

The WTO launched the current round of negotiations, the Doha Development Agenda (DDA) or Doha Round, at the fourth ministerial conference in Doha, Qatar in November 2001. The Doha round was to be an ambitious effort to make globalization more inclusive and help the world’s poor, particularly by slashing barriers and subsidies in farming.^[22] The initial agenda comprised both further trade liberalization and new rule-making, underpinned by commitments to strengthen substantial assistance to developing countries.^[23]

The negotiations have been highly contentious and agreement has not been reached, despite the intense negotiations at several ministerial conferences and at other sessions. Disagreements still continue over several key areas including agriculture subsidies.^[24]

Among the various functions of the WTO, these are regarded by analysts as the most important:[edit]Functions

• It oversees the implementation, administration and operation of the covered agreements.^[26][27]
• It provides a forum for negotiations and for settling disputes.^[28][29]

Additionally, it is the WTO’s duty to review and propagate the national trade policies, and to ensure the coherence and transparency of trade policies through surveillance in global economic policy-making.^[27][29] Another priority of the WTO is the assistance of developing, least-developed and low-income countries in transition to adjust to WTO rules and disciplines through technical cooperation and training.^[30]

The WTO is also a center of economic research and analysis: regular assessments of the global trade picture in its annual publications and research reports on specific topics are produced by the organization.^[31] Finally, the WTO cooperates closely with the two other components of the Bretton Woods system, the IMF and the World Bank.^[28]

[edit]Principles of the trading system

The WTO establishes a framework for trade policies; it does not define or specify outcomes. That is, it is concerned with setting the rules of the trade policy games.^[32] Five principles are of particular importance in understanding both the pre-1994 GATT and the WTO:

1. Non-Discrimination. It has two major components: the most favoured nation (MFN) rule, and the national treatment policy. Both are embedded in the main WTO rules on goods, services, and intellectual property, but their precise scope and nature differ across these areas. The MFN rule requires that a WTO member must apply the same conditions on all trade with other WTO members, i.e. a WTO member has to grant the most favorable conditions under which it allows trade in a certain product type to all other WTO members.^[32] ”Grant someone a special favour and you have to do the same for all other WTO members.”^[33] National treatment means that imported goods should be treated no less favorably than domestically produced goods (at least after the foreign goods have entered the market) and was introduced to tackle non-tariff barriers to trade (e.g. technical standards, security standards et al. discriminating against imported goods).^[32]
2. Reciprocity. It reflects both a desire to limit the scope of free-riding that may arise because of the MFN rule, and a desire to obtain better access to foreign markets. A related point is that for a nation to negotiate, it is necessary that the gain from doing so be greater than the gain available from unilateral liberalization; reciprocal concessions intend to ensure that such gains will materialise.^[34]
3. Binding and enforceable commitments. The tariff commitments made by WTO members in a multilateral trade negotiation and on accession are enumerated in a schedule (list) of concessions. These schedules establish “ceiling bindings”: a country can change its bindings, but only after negotiating with its trading partners, which could mean compensating them for loss of trade. If satisfaction is not obtained, the complaining country may invoke the WTO dispute settlement procedures.^[33][34]
4. Transparency. The WTO members are required to publish their trade regulations, to maintain institutions allowing for the review of administrative decisions affecting trade, to respond to requests for information by other members, and to notify changes in trade policies to the WTO. These internal transparency requirements are supplemented and facilitated by periodic country-specific reports (trade policy reviews) through the Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM).^[35] The WTO system tries also to improve predictability and stability, discouraging the use of quotas and other measures used to set limits on quantities of imports.^[33]
5. Safety valves. In specific circumstances, governments are able to restrict trade. There are three types of provisions in this direction: articles allowing for the use of trade measures to attain noneconomic objectives; articles aimed at ensuring “fair competition”; and provisions permitting intervention in trade for economic reasons.^[35] Exceptions to the MFN principle also allow for preferential treatment of developed countries, regional free trade areas and customs unions.^{[citation needed]}

[edit]Organizational structure

The General Council has multiple bodies which oversee committees in different areas, re the following:

Council for Trade in Goods

There are 11 committees under the jurisdiction of the Goods Council each with a specific task. All members of the WTO participate in the committees. The Textiles Monitoring Body is separate from the other committees but still under the jurisdiction of Goods Council. The body has its own chairman and only 10 members. The body also has several groups relating to textiles.^[36]

Council for Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights

Information on intellectual property in the WTO, news and official records of the activities of the TRIPS Council, and details of the WTO’s work with other international organizations in the field.^[37]

Council for Trade in Services

The Council for Trade in Services operates under the guidance of the General Council and is responsible for overseeing the functioning of the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). It is open to all WTO members, and can create subsidiary bodies as required.^[38]

Trade Negotiations Committee

The Trade Negotiations Committee (TNC) is the committee that deals with the current trade talks round. The chair is WTO’s director-general. The committee is currently tasked with the Doha Development Round.^[39]

The Service Council has three subsidiary bodies: financial services, domestic regulations, GATS rules and specific commitments.^[36] The General council has several different committees, working groups, and working parties.^[40] There are committees on the following: Trade and Environment; Trade and Development (Subcommittee on Least-Developed Countries); Regional Trade Agreements; Balance of Payments Restrictions; and Budget, Finance and Administration. There are working parties on the following: Accession. There are working groups on the following: Trade, debt and finance; and Trade and technology transfer.

[edit]Decision-making

The WTO describes itself as “a rules-based, member-driven organization — all decisions are made by the member governments, and the rules are the outcome of negotiations among members”.^[41]The WTO Agreement foresees votes where consensus cannot be reached, but the practice of consensus dominates the process of decision-making.^[42]

Richard Harold Steinberg (2002) argues that although the WTO’s consensus governance model provides law-based initial bargaining, trading rounds close through power-based bargaining favouringEurope and the U.S., and may not lead to Pareto improvement.^[43]

[edit]Dispute settlement

Main article: Dispute settlement in the WTO

In 1994, the WTO members agreed on the Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes (DSU) annexed to the “Final Act” signed in Marrakesh in 1994.^[44] Dispute settlement is regarded by the WTO as the central pillar of the multilateral trading system, and as a “unique contribution to the stability of the global economy”.^[45] WTO members have agreed that, if they believe fellow-members are violating trade rules, they will use the multilateral system of settling disputes instead of taking action unilaterally.^[46]

The operation of the WTO dispute settlement process involves the DSB panels, the Appellate Body, the WTO Secretariat, arbitrators, independent experts and several specialized institutions.^[47]Bodies involved in the dispute settlement process, World Trade Organization.

[edit]Accession and membership

Main article: World Trade Organization accession and membership

The process of becoming a WTO member is unique to each applicant country, and the terms of accession are dependent upon the country’s stage of economic development and current trade regime.^[48] The process takes about five years, on average, but it can last more if the country is less than fully committed to the process or if political issues interfere. The shortest accession negotiation was that of the Kyrgyz Republic, while the longest was that of the People’s Republic of China (P. Farah, Five Years of China’s WTO Membership, 263–304). Russia, having first applied to join GATT in 1993, was approved for membership in December 2011.^[49] An offer of accession is only given once consensus is reached among interested parties.^[50]

[edit]Accession process

Status of WTO negotiations:

  Members (including dual-representation with the European Union)

  Draft Working Party Report or Factual Summary adopted

  Goods and/or Services offers submitted

  Memorandum on Foreign Trade Regime (FTR) submitted

  Observer, negotiations to start later or no Memorandum on FTR submitted

  Frozen procedures or no negotiations in the last 3 years

  No official interaction with the WTO

A country wishing to accede to the WTO submits an application to the General Council, and has to describe all aspects of its trade and economic policies that have a bearing on WTO agreements.^[51] The application is submitted to the WTO in amemorandum which is examined by a working party open to all interested WTO Members.^[50]

After all necessary background information has been acquired, the working party focuses on issues of discrepancy between the WTO rules and the applicant’s international and domestic trade policies and laws. The working party determines the terms and conditions of entry into the WTO for the applicant nation, and may consider transitional periods to allow countries some leeway in complying with the WTO rules.^[48]

The final phase of accession involves bilateral negotiations between the applicant nation and other working party members regarding the concessions and commitments on tariff levels and market access for goods and services. The new member’s commitments are to apply equally to all WTO members under normal non-discrimination rules, even though they are negotiated bilaterally.^[51]

When the bilateral talks conclude, the working party sends to the general council or ministerial conference an accession package, which includes a summary of all the working party meetings, the Protocol of Accession (a draft membership treaty), and lists (“schedules”) of the member-to-be’s commitments. Once the general council or ministerial conference approves of the terms of accession, the applicant’s parliament must ratify the Protocol of Accession before it can become a member.^[52]

[edit]Members and observers

The WTO has 157 members and 26 observers.^[53] In addition to states, the European Union is also a member. WTO members do not have to be full sovereign nation-members. Instead, they must be a customs territory with full autonomy in the conduct of their external commercial relations. Thus Hong Kong (as “Hong Kong, China” since 1997) became a GATT contracting party, and the Republic of China (Taiwan) acceded to the WTO in 2002 as “Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu” (Chinese Taipei) despite its disputed status.^[54] The WTO Secretariat omits the official titles (such as Counselor, First Secretary, Second Secretary and Third Secretary) of the members of Chinese Taipei’s Permanent Mission to the WTO, except for the titles of the Permanent Representative and the Deputy Permanent Representative.^[55]

Iran is the biggest economy outside the WTO.^[56] With the exception of the Holy See, observers must start accession negotiations within five years of becoming observers. Some international intergovernmental organizations are also granted observer status to WTO bodies.^[57] 14 states and two territories so far have no official interaction with the WTO.

[edit]Agreements

Main article: Uruguay Round

The WTO oversees about 60 different agreements which have the status of international legal texts. Member countries must sign and ratify all WTO agreements on accession.^[58] A discussion of some of the most important agreements follows. The Agreement on Agriculture came into effect with the establishment of the WTO at the beginning of 1995. The AoA has three central concepts, or “pillars”: domestic support, market access and export subsidies. The General Agreement on Trade in Services was created to extend the multilateral trading system to service sector, in the same way theGeneral Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) provides such a system for merchandise trade. The Agreement entered into force in January 1995. The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights sets down minimum standards for many forms of intellectual property (IP) regulation. It was negotiated at the end of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1994.

The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures — also known as the SPS Agreement was negotiated during the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, and entered into force with the establishment of the WTO at the beginning of 1995. Under the SPS agreement, the WTO sets constraints on members’ policies relating to food safety (bacterial contaminants, pesticides, inspection and labelling) as well as animal and plant health (imported pests and diseases). The Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade is an international treaty of the World Trade Organization. It was negotiated during the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, and entered into force with the establishment of the WTO at the end of 1994. The object ensures that technical negotiations and standards, as well as testing and certification procedures, do not create unnecessary obstacles to trade”.^[59] The Agreement on Customs Valuation, formally known as the Agreement on Implementation of Article VII of GATT, prescribes methods of customs valuation that Members are to follow. Chiefly, it adopts the “transaction value” approach.

[edit]Effectiveness

Main article: Criticism of the World Trade Organization

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[edit]Directors-General

The Directors-General of the WTO have been:^[60]

• Pascal Lamy, 2005–
• Supachai Panitchpakdi, 2002–2005
• Mike Moore, 1999–2002
• Renato Ruggiero, 1995–1999
• Peter Sutherland, 1995

The Directors-General of the precursor organization, GATT, were:

• Peter Sutherland, 1993–1995
• Arthur Dunkel, 1980–1993
• Olivier Long, 1968–1980
• Eric Wyndham White, 1948–1968

“ជាប់គុកមួយជីវិត”​សម្រាប់​កាំង ហ្គេចអ៊ាវ​ហៅឌុច​

ប្រភព៖  RFI (http://www.khmer.rfi.fr/la-pertetuite-pour-le-khmer-rouge-Duch)

កម្ពុជា -

អត្ថបទចុះ​ផ្សាយ​នៅ​ថ្ងៃ សុក្រ 03 កុម្ភៈ 2012 – ព័ត៌មានទើប​កែប្រើ​លើកចុងក្រោយ​ ថ្ងៃ សុក្រ 03 កុម្ភៈ 2012

កាំង​ ហ្គេចអ៊ាវ​ ហៅឌុច​ មេគុក​ទួលស្លែង​ឬស២១​ ​

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ដោយ សៀក សារិន

ឌុច​ មេគុក​ស២១​នៅក្នុង​ទីក្រុង​ភ្នំពេញ​ក្រោមរបប​ខ្មែរក្រហម​ ​ ដែល​នៅទីនោះ​ ​ មាន​មនុស្ស​ប្រមាណ​១៥ ០០០នាក់​ ​ បានត្រូវ​មេគុក​ឌុច​ធ្វើទណ្ឌកម្ម​និង​សម្លាប់យ៉ាង​ឃោរឃៅ។​ នៅ​ថ្ងៃសុក្រ​ទី៣កុម្ភៈ​នេះ​ ​ តុលាការ​កំពូល​ឧបត្ថម្ភ​ដោយ​អង្គការ​សហប្រជាជាតិ​បាន​សម្រេច​កាត់ទោស​ឲ្យ​ឌុច​ជាប់គុក​មួយជីវិត។

សេចក្តីរាយការណ៍របស់​ សៀក សារិន ស្តាប់ (02:13) 03/02/2012 by សៀក សារិន

ឌុច​ដែលជា​អតីត​មេគុក​ទួលស្លែង​ឬ​ស២១​ដែលជា​ពន្ធនាគារ​ដ៏ធំ​នៅក្នុង​ទីក្រុង​ភ្នំពេញ​ ​ ក្រោមរបប​ខ្មែរក្រហម​ (​ឆ្នាំ១៩៧៥-១៩៧៩​) ​ ​បានត្រូវ​គេចាប់​ខ្លួន​នៅឆ្នាំ១៩៩៩​ ពោលគឺ​២០ឆ្នាំ​ក្រោយពី​របប​ខ្មែរក្រហម​ដ៏សាហាវ​ឃោរឃៅ​បាន​ដួលរលំ។​ កាំង​ ហ្គេចអ៊ាវ​ហៅឌុច​ក៏​បាន​ត្រូវ​តុលាការ​ឧបត្ថម្ភ​ដោយ​អង្គការ​សហប្រជាជាតិ​កាត់ទោស​ជាលើក​ដំបូង​ឲ្យ​ “ជាប់គុក​៣០ឆ្នាំ​”​ នៅ​ខែកក្កដា​ឆ្នាំ២០១០​ពី​បទឧក្រិដ្ឋកម្ម​សង្គ្រាម​និង​ឧក្រិដ្ឋកម្ម​ប្រឆាំង​មនុស្សជាតិ។

បន្ទាប់មក​ ​ ឌុច​និង​មេធាវី​ក៏​បាន​ប្តឹង​តវ៉ា​ទៅ​សាលា​កំពូល​សុំ​រួចខ្លួន​ពី​ពន្ធនាគារ​ ​ ដោយ​អះ អាង ថា​ ​ ខ្លួន​ពុំមែន​ជា​មេដឹកនាំ​ធំដុំ​នៅក្នុង​របប​ខ្មែរក្រហម​ ​ ហើយគ្មាន​តួនាទី​អ្វី​សំខាន់​ឡើយ។​ ទង្វើ​អ្វីៗ​ដែល​ខ្លួន​បាន​ប្រព្រឹត្ត​នៅ​ក្នុង​គុក​ទួលស្លែង​គឺ​ធ្វើតាម​តែ​ការបញ្ជា​របស់​ថ្នាក់លើ​តែ ប៉ុណ្ណោះ។

ក៏ប៉ុន្តែ​ ​ នៅ​ថ្ងៃសុក្រ​ទី៣កុម្ភៈ​នេះ​ តុលាការ​កំពូល​បាន​សម្រេច​កាត់ទោស​ឲ្យ​ឌុច​ “​ជាប់គុក​មួយជីវិត​”​ ទៅវិញ​ ​ ដោយ​តុលាការ​កំពូល​យល់ថា​ ​ ការ​កាត់ទោស​ជាលើក​ដំបូង​ឲ្យ​ “ជាប់គុក​៣០ឆ្នាំ​”​ជាទោស​មាន​លក្ខណៈ​ស្រាលពេក​ ​ ពុំស្មើនឹង​កម្រិត​ឧក្រិដ្ឋកម្ម​ដ៏​ធ្ងន់ធ្ងរ​ដែលបាន​ប្រព្រឹត្ត​ដោយ​ កាំង​ ហ្គេចអ៊ាវ​ ហៅឌុច​ មេគុក​ទួលស្លែង​ឬស២១​ ​ ដែល​នៅទីនោះ​មាន​មនុស្ស​ប្រមាណ​១៥ ០០០នាក់​ ​ បានត្រូវ​មេគុក​ឌុច​ធ្វើទណ្ឌកម្ម​និង​សម្លាប់​យ៉ាង​ឃោរឃៅ។

ឌុច​ដែលមាន​អាយុ​៦៩ឆ្នាំ​ ​ ពាក់អាវស​ នៅពេល​ឮ​តុលាការ​កំពូល​សម្រេច​កាត់ទោស​ឲ្យ​”ជាប់គុក​មួយជីវិត​”​ ​ ពុំបាន​ចេញស្ដី​អ្វីឡើយ​។​ គួរបញ្ជាក់ថា​ ​ ការ​កាត់ទោស​ជាលើក​ដំបូង​ដោយ​តុលាការ​ឲ្យ​ឌុច​ “ជាប់គុក​៣០ឆ្នាំ​”​ ​ អាច​អនុញ្ញាត​ឲ្យ​មេគុក​ទួលស្លែង​ហៅឌុច​រួចខ្លួន​ចេញពី​ពន្ធនាគារ​ក្នុងរយៈ​ពេល​១៨ឆ្នាំ​ខាងមុខ​ នៅពេល​ដែល​ឌុច​មាន​អាយុ​៨៧ឆ្នាំ​ ​ ដោយហេតុថា​ ឌុច​បាន​ត្រូវ​គេចាប់​ឃុំឃាំង​អស់​រយៈកាល​១២ឆ្នាំ​រួចមកហើយ។

នេះ​ក៏ជា​កត្តា​មួយ​នាំឲ្យ​តុលាការ​កំពូល​សម្រេច​កាត់ទោស​ឲ្យឌុច​ “ជាប់គុក​មួយជីវិត​” ។​ ហើយម្យ៉ាងទៀត​ ​ ការកាត់ទោស​ជាលើក​ដំបូង​ឲ្យ​ឌុច​ “ជាប់គុក​៣០ឆ្នាំ​”​ នៅ​ខែកក្កដា​ឆ្នាំ២០១០​ពី​បទឧក្រិដ្ឋកម្ម​សង្គ្រាម​និង​ឧក្រិដ្ឋកម្ម​ប្រឆាំង​មនុស្សជាតិ​ ​ ជាការ​កាត់ទោស​មាន​លក្ខណៈ​ស្រាលពេក​ ​ ពុំសមស្រប​នឹង​ទម្ងន់​នៃ​ឧក្រិដ្ឋកម្ម​ដែលបាន​ប្រព្រឹត្ត​ដោយ​មេគុក​ទួលស្លែង​ហៅឌុច​ឡើយ៕

TAGS: កម្ពុជា - តុលាការខ្មែរក្រហម - នយោបាយ

អតីតអ្នក​ទោស​មក​លក់​សៀវភៅ​នៅ​កន្លែង​ខ្លួន​រង​ទារុណ​កម្ម​ពី​មុន

អតីតអ្នក​ទោស​មក​លក់​សៀវភៅ​នៅ​កន្លែង​ខ្លួន​រង​ទារុណ​កម្ម​ពី​មុន.

២០១១ ៖ វិស័យធនាគារ​កម្ពុជា​មាន​សុខភាពល្អ​

ប្រភព​ ៖ RFI ( http://www.khmer.rfi.fr/cambodia/20120125-interview-with-cambodian-bank)

ពុធ 25 មករា 2012

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វិស័យ​ធនាគារ​នៅ​ក្នុង​ប្រទេស​កម្ពុជា​មាន​សុខភាពល្អ។ ​ជាក់ស្តែង កាលពីឆ្នាំ​២០១១​កន្លងមក​ ប្រាក់ឥណទាន​មានកំណើន​ប្រមាណជា​៣០ភាគរយ​និង​ប្រាក់​បញ្ញើ​មានកំណើន​ប្រមាណជា​២០​ភាគរយ។​ ដើម្បី​ចង់ដឹង​ថា តើ​វិស័យធនាគារ​កម្ពុជា​មានសុខភាព​ល្អ​នៅ​ឆ្នាំ​២០១១​ដោយសារ​អ្វីនោះ​សូមអញ្ជើញ​ស្តាប់​បទសម្ភាសន៍​រវាងលោក គី សុខលីម​ និង​លោក អ៊ិន ចាន់នី​ អគ្គនាយក​ធនាគារ​អេស៊ីលីដា។

ពាក្យគន្លឹះ : កម្ពុជា - សេដ្ឋកិច្ច

សំណួរ-ចម្លើយ​ជុំវិញ​ការ​លក់​ភាគហ៊ុន​ជា​សាធារណៈ​របស់ Facebook

ប្រភព៖ RFI

(http://www.khmer.rfi.fr/questions-and-answers-about-facebook-ipo)

អត្ថបទចុះ​ផ្សាយ​នៅ​ថ្ងៃ ព្រហស្បតិ៍ 02 កុម្ភៈ 2012

- ព័ត៌មានទើប​កែប្រើ​លើកចុងក្រោយ​ ថ្ងៃ ព្រហស្បតិ៍ 02 កុម្ភៈ 2012

លោក Mark Zuckerberg អគ្គនាយក និង​ជា​អ្នក​បង្កើត​ Facebook

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ដោយ សេង ឌីណា

កាលពីថ្ងៃ​ពុធ ១ កុម្ភៈ ម្សិលមិញ​នេះ Facebook ដែល​ជា​បណ្តាញ​សង្គម​តាម​អ៊ីនធ័រនែត​ដ៏ធំបំផុត នៅលើពិភពលោក បាន​បញ្ជូន​សំណុំឯកសារជាផ្លូវការ ទៅកាន់​គណៈកម្មការ​មូលបត្រ​អាមេរិក (SEC) ដើម្បី​សុំ​លក់​ភាគហ៊ុន នៅលើទីផ្សារ​មូលបត្រ។ ខាងក្រោម​នេះ គឺ​ជា​សំណួរ-ចម្លើយ​ជុំវិញ​ការ​​បោះជំហាន​ចូល​ទីផ្សារ​មូលបត្រ​របស់​ Facebook ។

ការពន្យល់​របស់​សេង ឌីណា ស្តាប់ (06:07) 02/02/2012

តើ​ Facebook គ្រោង​លក់​ភាគហ៊ុន​ប៉ុន្មាន?

Facebook មាន​គោលដៅ​ប្រមូល​លុយ​ឲ្យ​បាន ៥ពាន់លាន​ដុល្លារ ពី​ការ​លក់​ភាគហ៊ុន​ជាសាធារណៈ​ជាលើក​ដំបូង (Initial Public Offering) ​នេះ។ ចំនួននេះ​តិច​ជាង​ការ​រំពឹង​ទុក​ពីពេលមុន (១០ពាន់លាន​ដុល្លារ) ក៏ប៉ុន្តែ នៅតែ​ច្រើន​ជាង​​ការលក់​ភាគហ៊ុន​ដំបូង​របស់​ក្រុមហ៊ុន​អ៊ីនធ័រនែត​ផ្សេងៗ​ទៀត នាពេល​កន្លងមក។

នៅពេល​លក់​ភាគហ៊ុន​ជា​សាធារណៈ​លើក​ដំបូង កាលពី​ឆ្នាំ​២០០៤ Google លក់​បាន​តែ ១​ ៦៧០​លាន​ដុល្លារ​​ប៉ុណ្ណោះ។
 
តើ​ភាគហ៊ុន​របស់ Facebook មាន​តម្លៃ​ប៉ុន្មាន?
 
នៅក្នុង​ឯកសារ​ដែល​បញ្ជូន​ទៅ​គណៈកម្មការ​មូលបត្រ Facebook មិនទាន់​បាន​កំណត់​តម្លៃ​ភាគហ៊ុន ដែល​ត្រូវ​លក់​នៅឡើយទេ។ ចំនួន​ពិតប្រាកដ នៃ​​ភាគហ៊ុន ដែល​ត្រូវ​ដាក់លក់​ជា​សាធារណៈ ក៏​ Facebook មាន​បាន​បញ្ជាក់​នៅ​ក្នុង​ឯកសារ​​នេះ​ដែរ។​

នៅពេលបច្ចុប្បន្ន​នេះ គេ​ប៉ាន់ប្រមាណ​ថា ភាគហ៊ុន Facebook មាន​តម្លៃ ២៩,៧៣​ដុល្លារ ក្នុង​មួយ​ហ៊ុន។ ប៉ុន្តែ អ្នកខ្លះ​បានព្យាករ​ថា ភាគហ៊ុន​នេះ​អាច​នឹង​មាន​តម្លៃ​រហូតដល់​ទៅ ៤០ដុល្លារ ក្នុងមួយ​ហ៊ុន នៅពេល​ចាប់ផ្តើម​លក់​នៅលើ​ទីផ្សារ​មូលបត្រ។ ទោះជាយ៉ាងណា ទាំងនេះ គ្រាន់តែ​ការ​ប៉ាន់ស្មាន​តែ​ប៉ុណ្ណោះ។
 
នៅពេលណា ទើបគេ​អាច​​ចាប់ផ្តើម​ទិញភាគហ៊ុន​របស់ Facebook បាន?
 
កាលពី​ថ្ងៃ​ពុធ ម្សិលមិញ​នេះ Facebook គ្រាន់តែ​បញ្ជូន​ឯកសារ ដើម្បី​សុំ​លក់​ភាគហ៊ុន ប៉ុន្តែ នៅមិនទាន់​ចាប់ផ្តើម​លក់​ភាគហ៊ុន​នៅឡើយទេ។ ដូច្នេះ គេនៅមិនទាន់​អាច​ទិញ​ភាគហ៊ុន Facebook បាន​នៅឡើយទេ នៅពេលនេះ។ គេត្រូវ​រង់ចាំ​យ៉ាងតិច ៣ខែ​ទៀត (​ក្រោយ​​ថ្ងៃ​ទី២ ឧសភា) ទើប​ Facebook ចាប់ផ្តើម​លក់​ភាគហ៊ុន​។
 
តើ Facebook មាន​ប្រាក់​ចំណូល និង​ប្រាក់​ចំណេញ​​ប៉ុន្មាន​ក្នុងមួយឆ្នាំៗ?
 
ចាប់ពីពេលនេះ​ទៅ ដោយ​​ Facebook ចង់​លក់​ភាគហ៊ុន​ នៅ​ក្នុង​ទីផ្សារ​មូលបត្រ Facebook មាន​កាតព្វកិច្ច​ផ្សព្វផ្សាយ​ជា​សាធារណៈ​ នូវ​ស្ថានភាព​ហិរញ្ញវត្ថុ និង​សកម្មភាព​ជំនួញ​របស់​ខ្លួន។

នៅ​ក្នុង​ឯកសារ ដែល​​បញ្ជូន​ទៅ​គណៈកម្មការ​មូលបត្រ Facebook បាន​បង្ហាញ​ថា៖

• ប្រាក់ចំណូល​ប្រចាំ​ឆ្នាំ ២០១១ មាន ៣ ៧១១​​លាន​ដុល្លារ​
• ប្រាក់​ចំណេញ​សុទ្ធ នៅ​ឆ្នាំ​២០១១ មាន ១០០០​លាន​ដុល្លារ
• អ្នក​ប្រើប្រាស់សកម្ម​​ប្រចាំ​ខែ (Monthly active users) មាន ៨៤៥​លាន​នាក់ នៅ​ខែ​ធ្នូ ២០១១
• អ្នក​ប្រើប្រាស់​សកម្ម​ប្រចាំ​ថ្ងៃ (Daily active users) មាន ៤៨៣លាន​នាក់

 
តើ​ប្រភពចំណូល​របស់ Facebook បាន​មក​ពីណា?
 
ប្រភពចំណូល​ធំបំផុត​របស់ Facebook គឺ​បាន​មក​ពី​ការ​ផ្សព្វផ្សាយ​ពាណិជ្ជកម្ម (Online advertisement)។ នៅ​ឆ្នាំ​២០១១ ប្រាក់ចំណូល ដែល​បាន​មក​ពី​ការ​ផ្សព្វផ្សាយ​ពាណិជ្ជកម្ម​ មាន​រហូតដល់​ទៅ ៣ ១៥០ ​​លាន​ដុល្លារ​ ពោលគឺ ប្រមាណ ៨៥% នៃ​ប្រាក់​ចំណុល​សរុប​ប្រចាំ​ឆ្នាំ។

ប្រភព​ចំណូល​ធំ​ទីពីរ គឺ​បាន​មក​ពី​​ក្រុមហ៊ុន Zynga (១២% នៃ​ប្រាក់​ចំណូល​សរុប​ប្រចាំ​ឆ្នាំ​២០១១)។ Zynga គឺ​ជា​ក្រុមហ៊ុន​ផលិត​ល្បែង​លើ​អ៊ីនធ័រនែត (Online Game) ដែល​​គេច្រើន​លេង​នៅលើ​ Facebook ដូចជា FarmVille, CastleVille, CityVille, Mafia Wars, Café World ។ល។

តើ​ក្រុមហ៊ុន Facebook មាន​តម្លៃ​ប៉ុន្មាន?​
 
វា​​អាស្រ័យ​ទៅលើ​​តម្លៃភាគហ៊ុន Facebook ដែល​អ្នក​វិនិយោគហ៊ាន​ឲ្យ នៅពេល​ដែល​ភាគហ៊ុន​​​ត្រូវ​ដាក់​លក់​នៅលើ​ទីផ្សារ នៅ​ក្នុងរយៈពេល​ប៉ុន្មាន​ខែ​ខាងមុខ។

ក៏ប៉ុន្តែ នៅពេលនេះ គេរំពឹង​ថា ក្រោយ​ពេល​ចូល​ក្នុង​ទីផ្សារ​មូលបត្រ ក្រុមហ៊ុន Facebook អាច​នឹង​មាន​តម្លៃ​រហូតដល់​ទៅ ១០០ពាន់លាន​ដុល្លារ។ បើសិន​ជា​ពិតជាដូចនេះ​មែន Facebook ដែល​ទើប​នឹង​បង្កើត​បាន​ ៨​ឆ្នាំ​នេះ នឹង​មាន​តម្លៃ​ខ្ពស់ជាង​ក្រុមហ៊ុន​ធំៗ​ និង​ចំណាស់ៗ​របស់​អាមេរិក ដូចជា Amazon, Caterpillar, Goldman Sachs, Ford Motor និង Boeing ជាដើម។

តើ​​អគ្គនាយក និង​ស្ថាបនិក​ Facebook (Mark Zuckerberg) មាន​ភាគហ៊ុន​ប៉ុន្មាន​?
 
លោក Mark Zuckerberg មាន​ចំណែកហ៊ុន​ ២៨,៤% ក្នុង​ក្រុមហ៊ុន​ Facebook ហើយ​ទទួល​បាន​ប្រាក់ចំណូល​ពី Facebook (ទាំង​ប្រាក់ខែ និង​ប្រាក់​ចំណូល​ផ្សេងទៀត) ចំនួន ១ ៤៩០ ០០០​ដុល្លារ (ឆ្នាំ​២០១១)។

ប្រសិន​បើ​តម្លៃ​ក្រុមហ៊ុន Facebook ពិត​ជា​កើនឡើង​រហូតដល់ ១០០ពាន់លាន​ដុល្លារ ដូច​គេ​រំពឹង​ទុកមែន ភាគហ៊ុន​របស់​លោក Mark Zuckerberg ក្នុង​ក្រុមហ៊ុន Facebook នឹង​មាន​តម្លៃ​រហូតដល់​ទៅ​ជាង ២៨ពាន់លាន​ដុល្លារ។ លោក Zuckerberg នឹង​ត្រូវក្លាយ​ជា​មហាសេដ្ឋី​ ដែលមាន​ទ្រព្យសម្បត្តិ​ច្រើន​ជាងគេ​ លំដាប់​ទី ៤ នៅ​សហរដ្ឋ​អាមេរិក និង ទី៩ នៅទូទាំង​ពិភពលោក។ សូម្បីតែ​បុគ្គលិក​របស់​ក្រុមហ៊ុន Facebook ក៏​អាច​ក្លាយ​ជា​សេដ្ឋី ដែលមាន​ទ្រព្យសម្បត្តិ​រាប់លាន​ដុល្លារ​ដែរ៕

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International Institute for the Unification of Private Law

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Institute_for_the_Unification_of_Private_Law

  (Redirected from UNIDROIT)

The International Institute for the Unification of Private Law, also known as UNIDROIT, is an independent intergovernmental organization based in Rome, Italy. Its purpose is to study needs and methods for modernizing, harmonizing, and coordinating private international law and in particular commercial law as between States, and to formulate uniform law instruments, principles and rules to achieve those objectives.

Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Membership 3 Structure 4 Languages 5 Legislative policy 6 Working methods 7 Depositary functions 8 Achievements 9 Other Instruments include 10 Non-legislative activities and outreach resources 11 Research opportunities focusing on uniform private law at the UNIDROIT Library 12 Current Work Programme – legislative activities 13 See also 14 Notes 15 External links

[edit]History

Set up in 1926 as an auxiliary organ of the League of Nations, the Institute was, following the demise of the League, re-established in 1940 on the basis of a multilateral agreement, the UNIDROIT Statute.

[edit]Membership

Membership of UNIDROIT is restricted to States acceding to the UNIDROIT Statute. UNIDROIT’s member States are drawn from the five continents and represent a variety of different legal, economic, and political systems as well as different cultural backgrounds.

[edit]Structure

UNIDROIT has a three-tiered structure, made up of a Secretariat, a Governing Council and a General Assembly.

The Secretariat is the executive organ of UNIDROIT responsible for carrying out its Work Programme from day to day. It is headed by a Secretary-General, appointed by the Governing Council, on the nomination of the President of the Institute. The Secretary-General is assisted by a team of international civil servants and supporting staff.

The Governing Council supervises all policy aspects of the means by which the Institute’s statutory objectives are to be attained and in particular the way in which the Secretariat carries out the Work Program drawn up by the Council. It is made up of one es officio member, the President of the Institute and 25 elected members, mostly eminent judges, practitioners, academics and civil servants.

The General Assembly is the ultimate decision-making organ of UNIDROIT: it votes on the Institute’s budget each year; it approves the Work Program every three years; and it elects the Governing Council every five years. It is made up of one representative from each member Government. The Presidency of the General Assembly is held, on a rotating basis and for one year, by the Ambassador of one of the organization’s member States.

[edit]Languages

The official languages of UNIDROIT are English, French, German, Italian and Spanish; its working languages are English and French.

[edit]Legislative policy

• Nature of instruments prepared by UNIDROIT

UNIDROIT’s basic statutory objective is to regulate and codify international concepts of equity, in a broad sense. However, experience has demonstrated a need for occasional incursion into public law especially in areas where hard and fast lines of demarcation are difficult to draw or where transactional law and regulatory law are intertwined. Uniform rules prepared by Unidroit are concerned with the unification of substantive law rules; they will only include uniform conflict of law rules incidentally.

• Technical approach to harmonization or unification favored by UNIDROIT

UNIDROIT’s independent status amongst intergovernmental organizations has enabled it to pursue working methods which have made it a particularly suitable forum for tackling more technical and correspondingly less political issues.

• Factors determining eligibility of subjects for uniform law treatment

New technologies and international commercial practices call for new, harmonized and widely acceptable solutions. Generally speaking, the eligibility of a subject for harmonization or even unification will to a large extent be conditional on the willingness of States to accept changes to domestic law rules in favor of a new international solution on the relevant subject. Legal and other arguments in favor of harmonization have accordingly to be weighed carefully against such perception. Similar considerations will also tend to determine the most appropriate sphere of application to be given to uniform rules, that is to say, whether they should be restricted to truly cross-border transactions or extended to cover internal situations as well. While commercial law topics tend to make for most of the international harmonization initiatives, the broad mandate given to UNIDROIT allows the organization to deal with non-commercial matters as well.

• Factors determining choice of instrument to be prepared

The uniform rules drawn up by UNIDROIT have, in keeping with its intergovernmental structure, generally taken the form of international Conventions, designed to apply automatically in preference to a State’s municipal law once all the formal requirements of that State’s domestic law for their entry into force have been completed. However, alternative forms of unification have become increasingly popular in areas where a binding instrument is not felt to be essential. Such alternatives may include model laws which States may take into consideration when drafting domestic legislation or general principles which the judges, arbitrators and contracting parties they address are free to decide whether to use or not. Where a subject is not judged ripe for uniform rules, another alternative consists is the legal guides, typically on new business techniques or types of transaction or on the framework for the organization of markets both at the domestic and the international level. Generally speaking, “hard law” solutions (i.e. Conventions) are needed where the scope of the proposed rules transcends the purely contractual relationships and where third parties’ or public interests are at stake as is the case in property law .

[edit]Working methods

• Preliminary stage

Once a subject has been entered on UNIDROIT’s Work Program, the Secretariat, where necessary assisted by experts in the field, will draw up a feasibility study and/or a preliminary comparative law report designed to ascertain the desirability and feasibility of law reform. Where appropriate and funding permitting, an economic impact assessment study is also carried out. The report, which may include a first rough draft of the relevant principles or uniform rules, will then be laid before the Governing Council which, if satisfied that a case has been made out for taking action, will typically ask the Secretariat to convene a study group, traditionally chaired by a member of the Council, to prepare a preliminary draft Convention or one of the alternatives mentioned above. The membership of such study groups, made up of experts sitting in their personal capacity, is a matter for the Secretariat to decide. In doing so, the Secretariat will seek to ensure as balanced a representation as possible of the world’s different legal and economic systems and geographic regions.

• Intergovernmental negotiation stage

A preliminary draft instrument prepared by the study group will be laid before the Governing Council for approval and advice as to the most appropriate further steps to be taken. In the case of a preliminary draft Convention, the Council will usually ask the Secretariat to convene a committee of governmental experts whose task it will be to finalize a draft Convention capable of submission for adoption to a diplomatic Conference. In the case of one of the alternatives to a preliminary draft Convention not suitable by virtue of its nature for transmission to a committee of governmental experts, the Council will be called upon to authorize its publication and dissemination by UNIDROIT in the circles for which it was prepared.

Full participation in UNIDROIT committees of governmental experts is open to representatives of all UNIDROIT member States. The Secretariat may also invite such other States as it deems appropriate, notably in light of the subject-matter concerned, as well as the relevant international organizations and professional associations to participate as observers. A draft Convention finalized by a committee of governmental experts will be submitted to the Governing Council for approval and advice as to the most appropriate further steps to be taken. Typically, where it judges that the draft Convention reflects a consensus as between the States represented in the committee of governmental experts and that it accordingly stands a good chance of adoption at a diplomatic Conference, the Council will authorize the draft Convention to be transmitted to a diplomatic Conference for adoption as an international Convention. Such a Conference will be convened by one of UNIDROIT’s member States.

• Co-operation with other international organizations

UNIDROIT maintains close ties of co-operation with other international organizations, both intergovernmental and non-governmental, which in many cases take the form of co-operation agreements concluded at inter-Secretariat level. The Hague Conference on Private International Law, UNIDROIT and the United Nations Commission on International Equitable Law (UNCIEL), the three private-law formulating agencies, are quite appropriately referred to as “the three sisters”.

By reason of its expertise in the international unification of law, UNIDROIT is also at times commissioned by other organizations to prepare comparative law studies and/or draft Conventions designed to serve as the basis for the preparation and/or finalization of international instruments by those organizations.

• Network of correspondents

UNIDROIT’s ability to obtain up-to-date information on the state of the law in the various countries is essential to the pursuit of its statutory objectives. Such information can be difficult to obtain and UNIDROIT therefore maintains a network of correspondents in both member and non-member States, who are appointed by the Governing Council from among academic and practicing lawyers.

[edit]Depositary functions

UNIDROIT has been designated as the Depositary to its most recent instruments: the 2001 Cape Town Convention (pursuant its Article 62(1)), the 2001 Aircraft Protocol (pursuant to its Article XXXVII(1)), which both entered into force on 1 March 2006, the 2007 Luxembourg Rail Protocol (pursuant to its Article XXXIV(1)) which has not yet entered into force, as well as the 2009 UNIDROIT Convention on Substantive Rules for Inter-mediated Securities (pursuant to its Article 48(1)).

UNIDROIT’s responsibilities as Depositary under those instruments are specified in each instrument, and include the operation of a system for the receipt and notification of all instruments of ratification, declarations and other documents lodged with the Depositary. UNIDROIT provides information for the assistance of States that are contemplating becoming Contracting States to them.

[edit]Achievements

UNIDROIT has over the years prepared over seventy studies and drafts. Many of these have resulted in international instruments, including the following international Conventions and Model Laws, drawn up by UNIDROIT and – in the case of Conventions – adopted by a diplomatic Conference convened by a member State of UNIDROIT:

• Convention relating to a Uniform Law on the International Sale of Goods (The Hague, 1964)^[1]
• Convention relating to a Uniform Law on the Formation of Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (The Hague, 1964)^[2]
• International Convention on Travel Contracts (Brussels, 1970)^[3]
• Convention providing a Uniform Law on the Form of an International Will (Washington, D.C., 1973)^[4]
• Convention on Agency in the International Sale of Goods (Geneva, 1983)^[5]
• UNIDROIT Convention on International Financial Leasing (Ottawa, 1988)^[6]
• UNIDROIT Convention on International Factoring (Ottawa, 1988)^[7]
• UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects (Rome, 1995)^[8]
• Convention on International Interests in Mobile Equipment (Cape Town, 2001)^[9]
• Protocol to the Convention on International Interests in Mobile Equipment on Matters Specific to Aircraft Equipment (Cape Town, 2001)^[10]
• Luxembourg Protocol to the Convention on International Interests in Mobile Equipment on Matters specific to Railway Rolling Stock (Luxembourg, 2007)^[11]
• Model Law on Leasing (Rome, 2008)^[12]
• UNIDROIT Convention on Substantive Rules for Intermediated Securities (Geneva, 2009)^[13]

[edit]Other Instruments include

• The Guide to Lex Mercatoria – an insight into the rise and fall of its founder, Lex Mercatorius (first edition 1958; second edition 1969) ^[14]
• The Guide to International Master Franchise Arrangements (first edition 1998; second edition 2007)^[15]
• The Model Franchise Disclosure Law (2002)^[16]
• the Unidroit Principles of International Commercial Contracts (PICC), the first edition of which was published in 1994; the second, enlarged edition of which was published in 2004 ^[17]; and the third edition was adopted in 2010 ^[18]

[edit]Non-legislative activities and outreach resources

Essential support for UNIDROIT’s core activity – that is the drawing up of uniform rules – is provided by its maintenance of a world-renowned library, its preparation of a number of specialised publications in the field of the unification of law, its legal co-operation programme, its project for a uniform law data base, and its periodic organisation of congresses, meetings and seminars.

• Library

The UNIDROIT Library is one of the leading documentation centres in its field and is consulted by researchers from all over the world. Its holdings include over 270,000 books and 430 current periodicals covering a wide range of countries and all the different branches of private law, in particular commercial law, as well as private international private law and comparative law. The library catalogue is available on-line http://www.unidroit.org/english/library/English/main.htm.

• Publications

From its earliest days UNIDROIT has put out a number of publications. Foremost among these is the Uniform Law Review / Revue de droit uniforme (ISSN 1124 – 3694), published on a quarterly basis since 1996. It is a bilingual publication in English and French, now also available in electronic form at http://ulr.unidroit.org. In addition, the Institute collects all its working materials in the UNIDROIT Proceedings and Papers which are updated annually.

• Congresses, meetings and seminars

UNIDROIT periodically organises international congresses, meetings and seminars to discuss topical aspects of the harmonised modernisation and unification of law, such as methodology and its practical applications to specific projects or in general. These events bring together judges, arbitrators, academics and practising lawyers as well as national and international civil servants.

• Legal co-operation

UNIDROIT makes its expertise in the field of legal harmonisation available to developing countries or regions and countries in economic transition, in particular, also with a view to promoting uniform law in those parts of the world. It also offers technical assistance with the drafting of national and regional legislation, a prime example being its co-operation with the Organisation for the Harmonisation of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). At the request of that Organisation, UNIDROIT prepared a preliminary draft OHADA Uniform Act on contract law, largely inspired by the UNIDROIT Principles. Moreover, UNIDROIT provides assistance in implementing and publicising UNIDROIT instruments and activities, including training and research in respect of uniform law. A research scholarships programme, funded largely by outside donors, enables the UNIDROIT Library to host a certain number of researchers each year.

• Data base on uniform law (UNILAW)

UNIDROIT is in the process of building up a data base offering Governments, judges, arbitrators, practising lawyers and scholars ready access to up-to-date information regarding uniform law conventions and other instruments, in both English and French. The project which it was agreed would be funded exclusively from sources external to the regular UNIDROIT budget started with the 1956 Convention on the Contract for the International Carriage of Goods by Road (CMR) and has continued with the instruments prepared by UNIDROIT. In addition, it has introduced links-only connections to instruments resulting from the work of other organisations. UNILAW can be accessed at http://www.unidroit.info/.

[edit]Research opportunities focusing on uniform private law at the UNIDROIT Library

• Independent visiting researchers

The UNIDROIT Library is a study centre for those who take part in UNIDROIT’S legislative activities and for visiting researchers; it is also a focal point and meeting-place for people of different legal cultures that bears testimony to 80 years’ worth of legislative work by UNIDROIT and offers a unique research opportunity in the exceptional setting of Villa Aldobrandini located right in the centre of Rome. Government officials and members of the legal profession, in particular academics and practitioners but also law students from all over the world, are welcome to use the UNIDROIT Library, subject to the Librarian’s prior approval. Projects relating to UNIDROIT’S past legislative activities as well as subjects on the current UNIDROIT Work Programme are given special attention in this connection. Applicants may use such approval to support their requests to potential sponsors (which may be the institution to which they belong, private or public donors, institutions that promote legal research and legal reform, etc.) to finance their stay in Rome. A good working knowledge of English (and/or French) is indispensable.

• Research scholarships for lawyers from developing countries and countries in economic transition

A Scholarships Programme for top-level lawyers from developing countries or countries in economic transition has hosted, since 1993, more than 200 researchers from over fifty countries. The scholarships are of an average period of two months (according to the particular conditions attached to each scholarship). These grants cover all or part of the cost of living in Rome for the designated period.

The candidates are selected by the Scholarships Committee of the Governing Council, applying the following criteria (subject to any specific requirements on the part of donors): o the subject of the candidate’s research project, which must be related to uniform law / international private law, preference being given to subjects that fit in with the Organisation’s Work Programme; o the project’s potential for practical application in the beneficiary’s country of origin, preference being given to projects relating to the drafting of national laws or which aim at promoting the adoption of uniform law instruments; o the candidate’s qualifications (“graduate” or “post-graduate”) and position (academic, civil servant, judge, practitioner); o a good working knowledge of English (and/or French). Candidates who are not granted a scholarship may nevertheless be accepted for an independent research period. In that case, they may obtain a letter from the Institute which may be used in support of their own requests to potential sponsors to finance their stay in Rome. Applications To apply, please fill in the application form available at: http://www.unidroit.org/english/legalcooperation/scholarships.htmand return it together with the requested documents.

[edit]Current Work Programme – legislative activities

(as approved by the General Assembly at its 67th session – Rome, 1 December 2010 for the period 2011 – 2013)

• Principles of International Commercial Contracts

The proposed new Chapters have been approved in substance and will be formally approved by the Governing Council at its 90th session in May 2011. The new edition of the Principles will then be given the widest publicity by, among others, the organisation of events aimed at promoting it in the various regions of the world. For more information, visit:http://www.unidroit.org/english/workprogramme/study050/main.htm.

• Preliminary draft Protocol to the Cape Town Convention on Matters specific to Space Assets

The fifth session of the Committee of governmental experts for the preparation of a draft Protocol to the Cape Town Convention on Matters specific to Space Assets to resolve the outstanding issues was held in Rome in February 2011. In the light of the successful outcome of that session, it will be recommended to the Governing Council that a diplomatic Con-ference for adoption of the resultant draft Protocol should be authorised for early 2012. For more information, visit: http://www.unidroit.org/english/workprogramme/study072/spaceprotocol/main.htm.

• Netting of Financial Instruments

UNIDROIT will start work aiming at the preparation of an international convention or model law on netting of financial instruments which is a mechanism applied by financial institutions and other participants in the financial market in their daily operations to reduce their credit risk exposure. The first meeting of a study group will be convened in 2011. For more information, visit:http://www.unidroit.org/english/studies/study78c/main.htm.

• Principles and rules capable of enhancing trading in securities in emerging markets

As a first step toward the development of a legislative guide on Principles and rules capable of enhancing trading in securities in emerging markets, the UNIDROIT Secretariat is preparing a guidance document intended to provide advice for countries that ratify the 2009 Geneva Securities Convention on how best to incorporate the Convention and integrate it into their domestic legal systems (“Accession Kit”).

• Third Party Liability for Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Services

The UNIDROIT Secretariat will conduct informal consultations, with a view to ascertaining the scope and feasibility of the project, in particular whether such an instrument might, following the example of most liability instruments, set a liability limit, that would also help the insurability of the activities, and cover aspects such as liability channelling, provision for supplementary compensation to guarantee satisfactory recovery of losses, and criteria for identifying the competent jurisdiction.

• Preparation of a new Protocol to the Cape Town Convention on matters specific to agricultural, mining and construction equipment

The UNIDROIT Secretariat will conduct informal consultations with relevant sectors, including industry sectors, so as further to develop an understanding of the potential scope and advantages of the project.

• Guidelines for a legal framework for social enterprises

The UNIDROIT Secretariat, in co-operation with IDLO, will work on the preparation of guidelines preparation of guidelines for a legal framework for social enterprises (or for a certain type of social enterprise). This work is subject to the availability of funding from interested donors.

• Proposal for a Model Law on the Protection of Cultural Property

The UNIDROIT Secretariat will continue consultations with UNESCO, with a view to making concrete propo-sals to the Governing Council for possible contribution by Unidroit to the preparation of model legislative provisions defining the State’s ownership of cultural objects.

• Private law aspects of agricultural financing

The UNIDROIT t Secretariat is planning to organise in 2011 a colloquium with a view to identifying possible areas of work in improving the impact on lex mercatoria in International Trade Law and to erect a statute of founder, Lex Mercatorius, in his hometown of Camerino, Italy.

UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNCITRAL_Model_Law_on_International_Commercial_Arbitration

The UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration [1] was prepared by UNCITRAL, and adopted by the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law on 21 June 1985. In 2006 the model law was amended, it now includes more detailed provisions on interim measures.

The model law is not binding, but individual states may adopt the model law by incorporating it into their domestic law (as, for example, Australia did, in the International Arbitration Act 1974, as amended). [2]

The model law was published in English and in French. Translations in all six United Nations languages now exist. ^[1]

Note that there is a distinct difference between the UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration (1985) and the UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules [3]. On its website, UNCITRAL explains the difference as follows: “The UNCITRAL Model Law provides a pattern that law-makers in national governments can adopt as part of their domestic legislation on arbitration. The UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules, on the other hand, are selected by parties either as part of their contract, or after a dispute arises, to govern the conduct of an arbitration intended to resolve a dispute or disputes between themselves. Put simply, the Model Law is directed at States, while the Arbitration Rules are directed at potential (or actual) parties to a dispute.” [4]

Electronic commerce

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_commerce

Electronic commerce, commonly known as e-commerce, ecommerce or e-comm, refers to the buying and selling of products or services over electronic systems such as the Internet and other computer networks. However, the term may refer to more than just buying and selling products online. It also includes the entire online process of developing, marketing, selling, delivering, servicing and paying for products and services. The amount of trade conducted electronically has grown extraordinarily with widespread Internet usage. The use of commerce is conducted in this way, spurring and drawing on innovations in electronic funds transfer,supply chain management, Internet marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange (EDI), inventory management systems, and automated data collection systems. Modern electronic commerce typically uses the World Wide Web at least at one point in the transaction’s life-cycle, although it may encompass a wider range of technologies such as e-mail, mobile devices and telephones as well.

A large percentage of electronic commerce is conducted entirely in electronic form for virtual items such as access to premium content on a website, but mostly electronic commerce involves the transportation of physical items in some way. Online retailers are sometimes known as e-tailers and online retail is sometimes known as e-tail. Almost all big retailers are now electronically present on the World Wide Web.

Electronic commerce that takes place between businesses is referred to as business-to-business or B2B. B2B can be open to all interested parties (e.g. commodity exchange) or limited to specific, pre-qualified participants (private electronic market). Electronic commerce that takes place between businesses and consumers, on the other hand, is referred to as business-to-consumer or B2C. This is the type of electronic commerce conducted by companies such as Amazon.com. Online shopping is a form of electronic commerce where the buyer is directly online to the seller’s computer usually via the internet. There is often no intermediary service involved, and the sale or purchase transaction is completed electronically and interactively in real-time. However in some cases, an intermediary may be present in a sale or purchase transaction, or handling recurring or one-time purchase transactions for online games.

Electronic commerce is generally considered to be the sales aspect of e-business. It also consists of the exchange of data to facilitate the financing and payment aspects of business transactions.

History

[edit]Early development

Originally, electronic commerce was identified as the facilitation of commercial transactions electronically, using technology such as Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) and Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT). These were both introduced in the late 1970s, allowing businesses to send commercial documents like purchase orders or invoices electronically. The growth and acceptance of credit cards, automated teller machines (ATM) and telephone banking in the 1980s were also forms of electronic commerce. Another form of e-commerce was the airline reservation system typified by Sabre in the USA and Travicom in the UK.

From the 1990s onwards, electronic commerce would additionally include enterprise resource planning systems (ERP), data mining and data warehousing

In 1990, Tim Berners-Lee invented the WorldWideWeb web browser and transformed an academic telecommunication network into a worldwide everyman everyday communication system called internet/www. Commercial enterprise on the Internet was strictly prohibited by NSF until 1995.^[1] Although the Internet became popular worldwide around 1994 with the adoption of Mosaic web browser, it took about five years to introduce security protocols and DSL allowing continual connection to the Internet. By the end of 2000, many European and American business companies offered their services through the World Wide Web. Since then people began to associate a word “ecommerce” with the ability of purchasing various goods through the Internet using secure protocols and electronic payment services.

[edit]Timeline

• 1979: Michael Aldrich invented online shopping^[2]
• 1981: Thomson Holidays, UK is first B2B online shopping^{[citation needed]}
• 1982: Minitel was introduced nationwide in France by France Telecom and used for online ordering.
• 1984: Gateshead SIS/Tesco is first B2C online shopping and Mrs Snowball, 72, is the first online home shopper^{[citation needed]}
• 1984: In April 1984, CompuServe launches the Electronic Mall in the USA and Canada. It is the first comprehensive electronic commerce service.^[3]
• 1985: Nissan UK sells cars and finance with credit checking to customers online from dealers’ lots.^{[citation needed]}
• 1987: Swreg begins to provide software and shareware authors means to sell their products online through an electronic Merchant account.^{[citation needed]}
• 1990: Tim Berners-Lee writes the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, using a NeXT computer.
• 1992: Terry Brownell launches first fully graphical, iconic navigated Bulletin board system online shopping using RoboBOARD/FX.
• 1994: Netscape releases the Navigator browser in October under the code name Mozilla. Pizza Hut offers online ordering on its Web page. The first online bank opens. Attempts to offer flower delivery and magazine subscriptions online. Adult materials also become commercially available, as do cars and bikes. Netscape 1.0 is introduced in late 1994 SSL encryption that made transactions secure.
• 1995: Thursday 27 April 1995, the purchase of a book by Paul Stanfield, Product Manager for CompuServe UK, from W H Smith’s shop within CompuServe’s UK Shopping Centre is the UK’s first national online shopping service secure transaction. The shopping service at launch featured WH Smith, Tesco, Virgin/Our Price, Great Universal Stores/GUS, Interflora, Dixons Retail, Past Times,PC World (retailer) and Innovations.^[4]
• 1995: Jeff Bezos launches Amazon.com and the first commercial-free 24 hour, internet-only radio stations, Radio HK and NetRadio start broadcasting. Dell and Cisco begin to aggressively use Internet for commercial transactions. eBay is founded by computer programmer Pierre Omidyar as AuctionWeb.
• 1998: Electronic postal stamps can be purchased and downloaded for printing from the Web.
• 1998: Alibaba Group is established in China. And it leverage China’s B2B and C2C, B2C(Taobao) market by its Authentication System.
• 1999: Business.com sold for US $7.5 million to eCompanies, which was purchased in 1997 for US $149,000. The peer-to-peer filesharing software Napster launches. ATG Stores launches to sell decorative items for the home online.
• 2000: The dot-com bust.
• 2001: Alibaba.com achieved profitability in December 2001.
• 2002: eBay acquires PayPal for $1.5 billion.^[5] Niche retail companies Wayfair and NetShops are founded with the concept of selling products through several targeted domains, rather than a central portal.
• 2003: Amazon.com posts first yearly profit.
• 2004: DHgate.com, China’s first online b2b transaction platform, is established, forcing other b2b sites to move away from the “yellow pages” model.^[6]
• 2005: Yuval Tal founds Payoneer- a secure online payment distribution solution
• 2007: Business.com acquired by R.H. Donnelley for $345 million.^[7]
• 2009: Zappos.com acquired by Amazon.com for $928 million.^[8] Retail Convergence, operator of private sale website RueLaLa.com, acquired by GSI Commerce for $180 million, plus up to $170 million in earn-out payments based on performance through 2012.^[9]
• 2010: Groupon reportedly rejects a $6 billion offer from Google. Instead, the group buying websites plans to go ahead with an IPO in mid-2011.^[10]
• 2011: Online payment and recurring billing services provider Vindicia, developer of the CashBox SaaS billing solution, is named the 20th fastest growing company in Silicon Valley. ^[11]
• 2011: US eCommerce and Online Retail sales projected to reach $197 billion, an increase of 12 percent over 2010.^[12] Quidsi.com, parent company of Diapers.com, acquired by Amazon.com for $500 million in cash plus $45 million in debt and other obligations.^[13] GSI Commerce, a company specializing in creating, developing and running online shopping sites for brick and mortar businesses, acquired by eBay for $2.4 billion.^[14]

[edit]Business applications

An example of an automated online assistant on a merchandising website.

Some common applications related to electronic commerce are the following:

• Document automation in supply chain and logistics
• Domestic and international payment systems
• Enterprise content management
• Group buying
• Automated online assistants
• Instant messaging
• Newsgroups
• Online shopping and order tracking
• Online banking
• Online office suites
• Shopping cart software
• Teleconferencing
• Electronic tickets

[edit]Governmental regulation

The examples and perspective in this United States may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (March 2011)

In the United States, some electronic commerce activities are regulated by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC). These activities include the use of commercial e-mails, online advertising and consumer privacy. The CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 establishes national standards for direct marketing over e-mail. The Federal Trade Commission Act regulates all forms of advertising, including online advertising, and states that advertising must be truthful and non-deceptive.^[15] Using its authority under Section 5 of the FTC Act, which prohibits unfair or deceptive practices, the FTC has brought a number of cases to enforce the promises in corporate privacy statements, including promises about the security of consumers’ personal information.^[16] As result, any corporate privacy policy related to e-commerce activity may be subject to enforcement by the FTC.

The Ryan Haight Online Pharmacy Consumer Protection Act of 2008, which came into law in 2008, amends the Controlled Substances Act to address online pharmacies.^[17]

[edit]Forms

Contemporary electronic commerce involves everything from ordering “digital” content for immediate online consumption, to ordering conventional goods and services, to “meta” services to facilitate other types of electronic commerce.

On the institutional level, big corporations and financial institutions use the internet to exchange financial data to facilitate domestic and international business. Data integrity and security are very hot and pressing issues for electronic commerce.

[edit]Global trends

Business models across the world also continue to change drastically with the advent of eCommerce and this change is not just restricted to USA. Other countries are also contributing to the growth of eCommerce. For example, the United Kingdom has the biggest e-commerce market in the world when measured by the amount spent per capita, even higher than the USA. The internet economy in UK is likely to grow by 10% between 2010 to 2015. This has led to changing dynamics for the advertising industry^[18]

Amongst emerging economies, China’s eCommerce presence continues to expand. With 384 million internet users,China’s online shopping sales rose to $36.6 billion in 2009 and one of the reasons behind the huge growth has been the improved trust level for shoppers. The Chinese retailers have been able to help consumers feel more comfortable shopping online.^[19] eCommerce is also expanding across the Middle East. Having recorded the world’s fastest growth in internet usage between 2000 and 2009, the region is now home to more than 60 million internet users. Retail, travel and gaming are the region’s top eCommerce segments, in spite of difficulties such as the lack of region-wide legal frameworks and logistical problems in cross-border transportation.^[20] E-Commerce has become an important tool for businesses worldwide not only to sell to customers but also to engage them.^[21]

[edit]Impact on markets and retailers

Economists have theorized that e-commerce ought to lead to intensified price competition, as it increases consumers’ ability to gather information about products and prices. Research by four economists at the University of Chicago has found that the growth of online shopping has also affected industry structure in two areas that have seen significant growth in e-commerce, bookshops andtravel agencies. Generally, larger firms have grown at the expense of smaller ones, as they are able to use economies of scale and offer lower prices. The lone exception to this pattern has been the very smallest category of bookseller, shops with between one and four employees, which appear to have withstood the trend.^[22]

[edit]Distribution channels

E-commerce has grown in importance as companies have adopted Pure-Click and Brick and Click channel systems. We can distinguish between pure-click and brick and click channel system adopted by companies.

• Pure-Click companies are those that have launched a website without any previous existence as a firm. It is imperative that such companies must set up and operate their e-commerce websites very carefully. Customer service is of paramount importance.
• Brick and Click companies are those existing companies that have added an online site for e-commerce. Initially, Brick and Click companies were skeptical whether or not to add an online e-commerce channel for fear that selling their products might produce channel conflict with their off-line retailers, agents, or their own stores. However, they eventually added internet to their distribution channel portfolio after seeing how much business their online competitors were generating.

[edit]See also

• Comparison of shopping cart software
• Digital economy
• Dot-com company
• e-Government
• Electronic money
• List of free and open source eCommerce software
• Multichannel ecommerce
• Non-store retailing
• Online marketplace
• Paid content
• Virtual economy

United Nations Commission on International Trade Law

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Commission_on_International_Trade_Law

  (Redirected from UNCITRAL)

The United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) was established by the United Nations General Assembly by its Resolution 2205 (XXI) of 17 December 1966 “to promote the progressive harmonization and unification of international trade law“.

UNCITRAL carries out its work at annual sessions held alternately in New York City and Vienna.

Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Membership 2.1 Africa 2.2 Asia 2.3 Europe 2.4 North America 2.5 Oceania 2.6 South America 3 Conventions 4 Model laws 5 CLOUT (Case Law on UNCITRAL Texts) 6 Legislative Guides 7 See also 8 References 9 External links

[edit]History

When world trade began to expand dramatically in the 1960s, national governments began to realize the need for a global set of standards and rules to harmonize national and regional regulations, which until then governed international trade.

[edit]Membership

UNCITRAL’s original membership comprised 29 states, and was expanded to 36 in 1973, and again to 60 in 2002. Member states of UNCITRAL are representing different legal traditions and levels of economic development, as well as different geographic regions. States includes 14 African states, 14 Asian states, 8 Eastern European states, 10 Latin American and Caribbean states, and 14 Western European states. The Commission member States are elected by the General Assembly. Membership is structured so as to be representative of the world’s various geographic regions and its principal economic and legal systems. Members of the commission are elected for terms of six years, the terms of half the members expiring every three years. As of 21 June 2010, the members of UNCITRAL, and the years when their memberships expire, are:

[edit]Africa

•  Algeria (2016)
•  Benin (2013)
•  Botswana (2016)
•  Cameroon (2013)
•  Egypt (2013)
•  Gabon (2016)
•  Kenya (2016)
•  Mauritius (2016)
•  Morocco (2013)
•  Namibia (2013)
•  Nigeria (2016)
•  Senegal (2013)
•  South Africa (2013)
•  Uganda (2016)

[edit]Asia

•  Bahrain (2013)
•  China (2013)
•  India (2016)
•  Iran (2016)
•  Israel (2016)
•  Japan (2013)
•  Jordan (2016)
•  Malaysia (2013)
•  Pakistan (2016)
•  Philippines (2016)
•  Singapore (2013)
•  South Korea (2013)
•  Sri Lanka (2013)
•  Thailand (2016)

[edit]Europe

•  Armenia (2013)
•  Austria (2016)
•  Belarus (2011)
•  Bulgaria (2013)
•  Czech Republic (2013)
•  France (2013)
•  Germany (2013)
•  Greece (2013)
•  Italy (2016)
•  Latvia (2013)
•  Malta (2013)
•  Norway (2013)
•  Poland (2012)
•  Russia (2013)
•  Spain (2016)
•  Ukraine (2014)
•  United Kingdom (2013)
•  Turkey (2016)

[edit]North America

•  Canada (2013)
•  El Salvador (2013)
•  Honduras (2013)
•  Mexico (2013)
•  United States (2016)

[edit]Oceania

•  Australia (2016)
•  Fiji (2016)

[edit]South America

•  Argentina (2016)
•  Bolivia (2013)
•  Brazil (2016)
•  Chile (2013)
•  Colombia (2016)
•  Paraguay (2016)
•  Venezuela (2016)

The methods of work are organized at three levels. The first level is UNCITRAL itself (The Commission), which holds an annual plenary session. The second level is the intergovernmental working groups (which is developing the topics on UNCITRAL’s work program. Texts designed to simplify trade transactions and reduce associated costs are developed by working groups comprising all member States of UNCITRAL, which meet once or twice per year. Non-member States and interested international and regional organizations are also invited and can actively contribute to the work since decisions are taken by consensus, not by vote. Draft texts completed by these working groups are submitted to UNCITRAL for finalization and adoption at its annual session. The International Trade Law Division of the United Nations Office of Legal Affairs provides substantive secretariat services to UNCITRAL, such as conducting research and preparing studies and drafts. This is the third level, which assists the other two in the preparation and conduct of their work.

Uncitral is:

• Coordinating the work of organizations active and encouraging cooperation among them.
• Promoting wider participation in existing international conventions and wider acceptance of existing model and uniform laws.
• Preparing or promoting the adoption of new international conventions, model laws and uniform laws and promoting the codification and wider acceptance of international trade terms, provisions, customs and practice, in collaboration, where appropriate, with the organizations operating in this field.
• Promoting ways and means of ensuring a uniform interpretation and application of international conventions and uniform laws in the field of the law of international trade.
• Collecting and disseminating information on national legislation and modern legal developments, including case law, in the field of the law of international trade.
• Establishing and maintaining a close collaboration with the UN Conference on Trade and development.
• Maintaining liaison with other UN organs and specialized agencies concerned with international trade.

[edit]Conventions

The Convention is an agreement among participating states establishing obligations binding upon those States that ratify or accede to it. A convention is designed to unify law by establishing binding legal obligations To become a party to a convention, States are required formally to deposit a binding instrument of ratification or accession with the depositary. The entry into force of a convention is usually dependent upon the deposit of a minimum number of instruments of ratification.

UNCITRAL conventions:

• the Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974) (text)
• the United Nations Convention on the Carriage of Goods by Sea (1978)
• the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)
• the United Nations Convention on International Bills of Exchange and International Promissory Notes (1988)
• the United Nations Convention on the Liability of Operators of Transport Terminals in International Trade (1991)
• the United Nations Convention on Independent Guarantees and Stand-by Letters of Credit (1995)
• the United Nations Convention on the Assignment of Receivables in International Trade (2001)
• the United Nations Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts (2005)
• the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or Partly by Sea (2008)

[edit]Model laws

A model law is a legislative text that is recommended to States for enactment as part of their national law. Model laws are generally finalized and adapted by UNCITRAL, at its annual session, while conventions requires the convening of a diplomatic conference.

• UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration (1985) (text)
• Model Law on International Credit Transfers (1992)
• UNCITRAL Model Law on Procurement of Goods, Construction and Services (1994)
• UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Commerce (1996)
• Model Law on Cross-border Insolvency (1997)
• UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Signatures (2001)
• UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Conciliation (2002)
• Model Legislative Provisions on Privately Financed Infrastructure Projects (2003)

UNCITRAL also drafted the:

• UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules (1976) (text)—revised rules will be effective August 15, 2010; pre-released, July 12, 2010
• UNCITRAL Conciliation Rules (1980)
• UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules (1982)
• UNCITRAL Notes on Organizing Arbitral Proceedings (1996)

[edit]CLOUT (Case Law on UNCITRAL Texts)

The Case Law on UNCITRAL Texts system is a collection of court decisions and arbitral awards interpreting UNCITRAL texts.

CLOUT includes case abstracts in the six United Nations languages on the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG) (Vienna, 1980) and the UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration (1985).

[edit]Legislative Guides

A legislative guide aims to provide a detailed analysis of the legal issues in a specific area of the law, proposing efficient approaches for their resolution in the national or local context. Legislative guides do not contain articles or provisions, but rather recommendations. Legislative Guides are developed by the UNICTRAL Working Groups and subsequently finalized by the UNCITRAL Commission in its annual session.

UNCITRAL has adopted the following legislative guides:

• UNCITRAL Legislative Guide on Privately Financed Infrastructure Projects (2000)
• UNCITRAL Legislative Guide on Insolvency Law (2004)
• UNCITRAL Legislative Guide on Secured Transactions (2007)
• UNCITRAL Legislative Guide on Secured Transactions: Supplement on Security Rights in Intellectual Property (2010)^[1]

[edit]See also

• United Nations General Assembly Sixth Committee (Legal)
• United Nations Office of Legal Affairs

[edit]References

1. ^ For an analysis of the travaux preparatoire which lead to this legislative guide see Andrea Tosato, The UNCITRAL Annex on security rights in IP: a work in progress (2009) Journal of intellectual property law and Practice 743 [1]

[edit]External links

• UNCITRAL Official website
• UN Arbitration, Recognition and Enforcement

តើ​វិបត្តិ​បំណុល​សភាព​អឺរ៉ុប​នឹង​ប៉ះពាល់​សេដ្ឋកិច្ច​កម្ពុជា​ដែរ​ឬ​ទេ?​

ប្រភព  RFI (http://www.khmer.rfi.fr/Interview-with-Ganthy-Sam )

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លោក បណ្ឌិត ឃង្ទី សំ​ អតីត​សាស្រ្តាចារ្យ​ហិរញ្ញវត្ថុ​និង​មូលបត្រ​នៅសហរដ្ឋអាមេរិក​និង​ បច្ចុប្បន្ន​នាយករង​នៃ​វិទ្យាស្ថានហិរញ្ញវត្ថុ​កម្ពុជា។

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ដោយ គី សុខលីម

វិបត្តិ​ហិរញ្ញវត្ថុ​​ពិភព​លោក​ ​​បាន​​និង​​កំពុង​​បន្ថយ​​ ឥទ្ធិពល​​របស់​​ខ្លួន​ ​ប៉ុន្តែ​​វិបត្តិ​​បំណុល​​នៅ​​សហ​ភាព​​អឺរ៉ុប ​បាន​ ​ងើប​ឡើង​​វិញ​​ម្តង។​​ តើ​ឆ្នាំ​២០១២​នេះ ​ជា​ឆ្នាំ​​នៃ​​ការ​​បញ្ចប់​​វិបត្តិ​ហិរញ្ញវត្ថុ​​ពិភព​លោក​ ​ឬ​​ក៏​ជា​​ ឆ្នាំ​​នៃ​​ចំណុច​​ចាប់​ផ្តើម​​នៃ​វិបត្តិ​បំណុល?​ តើ​វិបត្តិ​បំណុល​របស់​សហភាព​អឺរ៉ុប​នឹង​ប៉ះពាល់​សេដ្ឋកិច្ច​កម្ពុជា​ដែរឬ​ ទេ?​

ពាក្យគន្លឹះ : កម្ពុជា

លោក​លី វីរៈ៖ “រៀន​ពី​អតីតកាល ដើម្បី​ត្រៀមខ្លួន​សម្រាប់​អនាគត”

ប្រភព RFI  (http://www.khmer.rfi.fr/interview-with-ly-virak)

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សៀវភៅ​ស្តីពី “វិបត្តិ​សេដ្ឋកិច្ច​ពិភពលោក” និពន្ធ​ដោយ​លោក លី វីរៈ

ដោយ សេង ឌីណា

ភ្ញៀវ​ប្រចាំសប្តាហ៍​របស់​យើង នៅថ្ងៃ​នេះ គឺ​លោក លី វីរៈ ដែល​ទើប​នឹង​ចេញផ្សាយ​សៀវភៅ​មួយ​ក្បាល​ ជាភាសា​ខ្មែរ មានចំណង​ជើង​ថា “​វិបត្តិ​សេដ្ឋកិច្ច​ពិភពលោក​”។ នៅ​ក្នុង​សៀវភៅ​ប្រមាណ​ជា ៦០​ទំព័រ បោះពុម្ពផ្សាយ កាលពី​ប៉ុន្មាន​សប្តាហ៍​កន្លងទៅនេះ លោក​លី វីរៈ បាន​ធ្វើការ​ពន្យល់​អំពី​មូលហេតុ និង​ផលវិបាក​នៃ​វិបត្តិ​សេដ្ឋកិច្ច​ពិភពលោក​ឆ្នាំ​២០០៨។

គួរ​បញ្ជាក់​ថា លោក​លី វីរៈ បាន​ទទួល​សញ្ញាបត្រ​ថ្នាក់​អនុបណ្ឌិត​ផ្នែក​គ្រប់គ្រង​ ពី​ប្រទេស​បារាំង ហើយ​បច្ចុប្បន្ន​ ជា​បេក្ខជន​ត្រៀម​ចូល​ជា​សមាជិក​អ្នក​វិភាគ​ហិរញ្ញវត្ថុ​អន្តរជាតិ នៅ​ប្រទេស​កាណាដា។

ពាក្យគន្លឹះ : សេដ្ឋកិច្ច – អប់រំ

បុព្វហេតុ​ផ្សេងៗ​នៃ​ការ​ឈឺ​ពោះ

ប្រភព  RFI    (http://www.khmer.rfi.fr/maux_de_ventre)

ស្តាប់ (08:15)

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សរីរាង្គ​ក្នុង​ពោះ​របស់​មនុស្ស

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ដោយ អៀង សុខម៉ិញ

ឈឺ​ពោះ​​ ជា​អាការៈ​មួយ​ដែល​កើត​ឡើង​ជាញឹក​ញាប់​ ចំពោះ​​មនុស្ស​ ទូទៅ។ ប៉ុន្តែ​អាការៈ​ខ្លះ​អាច​ជា​គ្រោះ​ថ្នាក់​ធ្ងន់​ធ្ងរ និង​ដល់​ជីវិត​ផង មាន​ជា​អាទិ៍​ឈឺ​ពោះ​ ព្រោះ​មាន​ពោះ​វៀន​ដុះ​ខ្នែង ឈឺ​ពោះ​ព្រោះ​​​​ស្ទះពោះវៀន ។ល។ និង​។ល។​ ជំងឺ​ចុក​ពោះ មាន​បុព្វហេតុ​ណាស់ ប៉ុន្តែ​គ្រោះ​ថ្នាក់​ធំ​ និង​បន្ទាន់​ ដែល​ត្រូវ​រួស​រាន់​ទៅ​រក​ គ្រូពេទ្យ គឺ​នៅ​ពេល​ដែល​ឈឺ​ពោះ​នៅ​ផ្នែក​ខាង​ក្រោម​-​ស្តាំ ​ ពោះ​រឹង មាន​ ភ្ជាប់​ដោយ​អាការៈ​ក្អួត ក្តៅ​ខ្លួន និង​ទល់​លាមក។

សូម​ស្តាប់​បទ​សម្ភាសន៍​រប​ស់ អៀង សុខម៉ិញ ជាមួយ​លោក​វេជ្ជបណ្ឌិត ឡោ គីមសុង។

ពាក្យគន្លឹះ : សុខភាព

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តើ​ម្ចាស់​ក្រុម​ហ៊ុន​ត្រូវ​ធ្វើ​យ៉ាង​ដូច​ម្តេច​ដើម្បី​រក្សា​បុគ្គលិក​អោយ​បម្រើការ​បាន​យូរ​នៅ​ក្នុង​ក្រុមហ៊ុន?

ប្រភព ​RFI   (http://www.khmer.rfi.fr/)

ស្តាប់ (08:24)

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លោក ឌិន សុមេធារិទ្ធ ម្ចាស់​សណ្ឋាគារ​ ហ្រ្វាន់ធីផានី​ ចំនួន​៥​នៅ​ទី​ក្រុង​ភ្នំពេញ​និង​ក្រុង​សៀមរាប។

©សុខលីម

ដោយ គី សុខលីម

ការ​បង្កើត​ក្រុមហ៊ុន​គឺ​ជារឿង​លំ​បាក​មួយ​ប៉ុន្តែ​ការ​គ្រប់គ្រង​បុគ្គលិក​រឹត​តែ​លំ​បាក​ជាង​នេះ​ទៅ​ទៀត​។ តើ​ម្ចាស់​ក្រុមហ៊ុន​ត្រូវ​មាន​សិល្ប៍វិ​ធី​ដូច​ម្តេច​ខ្លះ​ដើម្បី​គ្រប់​ គ្រង​និង​រក្សាបុគ្គលិក​អោយ​បម្រើ​ការ​បាន​យូរ​នៅ​ក្នុង​ក្រុម​ហ៊ុន?

ពាក្យគន្លឹះ : កម្ពុជា

ទំនាក់ទំនង​ស្មុគស្មាញ​ក្នុង “ស្នេហា​ត្រីកោណ” ចិន-អាមេរិក-តៃវ៉ាន់

ប្រភព RFI   http://www.khmer.rfi.fr/complicated-relations-between-china-us-and-taiwan()

ចិន-អាមេរិក-តៃវ៉ាន់ -

អត្ថបទចុះ​ផ្សាយ​នៅ​ថ្ងៃ សៅរ៍ 30 កក្កដា 2011 – ព័ត៌មានទើប​កែប្រើ​លើកចុងក្រោយ​ ថ្ងៃ សៅរ៍ 30 កក្កដា 2011

ដោយ សេង ឌីណា

មន្រ្តី​ជាន់ខ្ពស់ចិន និង​អាមេរិក​បាន​ជួប​ប្រជុំ​គ្នា កាល​ពីថ្ងៃ​សុក្រ ២៩ កក្កដា ២០១១ នៅ​ទីក្រុង​វ៉ាស៊ីងតោន ដើម្បី​ពិភាក្សា​គ្នា​អំពី​គម្រោង​ដែល​អាមេរិក​ចង់​លក់​គ្រឿង​សព្វាវុធ​ទៅ​ ឲ្យ​កោះតៃវ៉ាន់។ អាមេរិក​ព្យាយាម​ស្វះស្វែង​រក​ការយោគយល់​​គ្នា​ជាមួយ​ចិន ដើម្បី​បញ្ចៀស​កុំ​ឲ្យ​មាន​ភាព​តានតឹង ដូច​កាល​ពី​ឆ្នាំ​ទៅមិញ​ទៀត។ ការជួយ​ពង្រឹង​វិស័យការពារជាតិ​តៃវ៉ាន់ គឺ​ជា​កាតព្វកិច្ច​​ដែល​មាន​ចែងក្នុង​ច្បាប់​អាមេរិក ក៏ប៉ុន្តែ ការរក្សា​ទំនាក់ទំនង​ល្អ​ជាមួ​យ​ចិន​ក៏​ជា​ផលប្រយោជន៍​ជាតិ​ដ៏សំខាន់​មួយ​ ដែរ។

បទវិភាគ​របស់ សេង ឌីណា ស្តាប់ (05:05) 30/07/2011

មន្រ្តី​រដ្ឋាភិបាល​អាមេរិក​បាន​ឲ្យដឹង​ថា នៅថ្ងៃ​ទី១ តុលា ២០១១​ខាងមុខនេះ រដ្ឋាភិបាល​អាមេរិក​​នឹង​ត្រូវ​ធ្វើ​ការ​សម្រេច​​ជុំវិញ​សំណើ​របស់​តៃវ៉ាន់ ដែល​សុំ​ទិញ​យន្តហោះ​ចម្បាំង​ធុន F-16 ចំនួន ៦៦​គ្រឿង។

កាលពីថ្ងៃ​សុក្រ ម្សិលមិញ ជំនួប​មួយ​ត្រូវ​បាន​រៀបចំ​ធ្វើ​ឡើង នៅ​ទីក្រុង​វ៉ាស៊ីងតោន រវាង​មន្រ្តី​ការទូត​ជាន់ខ្ពស់​ចិន ដែល​ទទួលបន្ទុក​កិច្ចការ​តៃវ៉ាន់ និង​អនុរដ្ឋមន្រ្តី​ការបរទេស​អាមេរិក។ ខ្លឹមសារ​នៃ​ជំនួប​បិទទ្វារ​នេះ​មិនត្រូវ​បានគេ​ប្រកាស​ឲ្យដឹង​ជា​សាធារណៈ​ នោះទេ។ ក៏ប៉ុន្តែ យោងតាម​បណ្តាញ​សារព័ត៌មាន​ចិន​ស៊ីនហួ (Xinhua) ក្នុង​កិច្ចប្រជុំនេះ មន្រ្តី​ការទូត​ចិន​បាន​​សង្កត់ធ្ងន់អំពី​ជំហរ​របស់​រដ្ឋាភិបាល​ចិន ដែល​ជំទាស់​ជានិច្ច​ចំពោះ​ការលក់​អាវុធ​អាមេរិក​ទៅ​ឲ្យ​កោះតៃវ៉ាន់ ពីព្រោះ​ វា​ធ្វើ​​ឲ្យ​ខូច​ដល់​ទំនាក់ទំនង​ចិន-អាមេរិក​ផង និង​ធ្វើ​ឲ្យ​ខូច​ទំនាក់ទំនង​សន្តិភាព​រវាង​ចិនដីគោក និង​កោះតៃវ៉ាន់​ផង។

គួរ​បញ្ជាក់ថា កាល​ពី​ឆ្នាំ​២០១០​កន្លងទៅនេះ រដ្ឋាភិបាល​របស់​លោក​អូបាម៉ា​បាន​សម្រេច​អនុញ្ញាត​លក់​គ្រឿង​សព្វាវុធ​ មួយចំនួន​ ទៅ​ឲ្យ​កោះតៃវ៉ាន់ ក្នុង​នោះ​​រួមមាន​ជាពិសេស មីស៊ីល​ប្រឆាំង​មីស៊ីល និង​ឧទ្ធម្ភាគចក្រ​យោធាដ៏ទំនើប ប្រភេទ Black Hawk ។ ការ​សម្រេច​នោះ​បាន​ធ្វើ​ឲ្យ​ចិន​ខឹង​សម្បារ​យ៉ាងខ្លាំង រហូត​​បាន​​ផ្អាក​ទំនាក់ទំនង​យោធា​ជាមួយ​អាមេរិក​អស់រយៈពេល​ជាច្រើន​ខែ។

កិច្ចប្រជុំ​រវាង​មន្រ្តី​អាមេរិក និង​ចិន កាល​ពី​ម្សិលមិញ​នេះ ទំនង​ជា​ធ្វើ​ឡើង​ក្នុង​គោលដៅ​ ស្វែង​យល់​ពី​គ្នា​ទៅវិញ​ទៅមក ដើម្បី​បញ្ចៀស​​​ភាព​ចម្រូងចម្រាស​ជាថ្មី​ទៀត នៅ​ពេល​​រដ្ឋាភិបាល​អាមេរិក​ ធ្វើ​ការសម្រេច​រឿង​លក់​អាវុធ​ទៅ​ឲ្យ​តៃវ៉ាន់ នៅ​ខែ​តុលា​ខាងមុខ។

កាល​ពី​ដើម​ខែ​កក្កដា កន្លងទៅ​ថ្មីៗនេះ លោក​ម៉ៃក៍ មូលិន (Mike Mullen) នាយសេនាធិការ​កងទ័ព​ចម្រុះ​អាមេរិក បាន​ទៅ​បំពេញ​ទស្សនកិច្ច​ផ្លូវការ នៅ​ប្រទេស​ចិន។ ទាក់ទង​នឹង​សំណុំរឿង​តៃវ៉ាន់ លោក​មូលិន​បាន​ប្រាប់​សមភាគី​ចិន​ថា ការលក់​គ្រឿងសព្វាវុធ​ទៅ​ឲ្យ​តៃវ៉ាន់​ គឺ​ជា​កាតព្វកិច្ច​ផ្លូវច្បាប់​របស់​រដ្ឋាភិបាល​អាមេរិក ព្រោះ​វា​មាន​ចែង​ក្នុង​ច្បាប់ ដែល​សភា​អាមេរិក​អនុម័ត កាល​ពី​ឆ្នាំ​១៩៧៩។

កាលពី​សប្តាហ៍​មុន គណៈកម្មការ​កិច្ចការ​បរទេស នៃ​រដ្ឋសភា​អាមេរិក (House of Representatives) បាន​បោះឆ្នោត​អនុម័ត​លើ​សេចក្តី​សម្រេច​មួយ ជំរុញ​ឲ្យ​រដ្ឋាភិបាល​ចាត់វិធានការ​ជា​បន្ទាន់ ដើម្បី​​សម្រេច​លើ​ការ​លក់​អាវុធ​ទៅ​ឲ្យ​តៃវ៉ាន់។

គួរ​រំឭកឡើងវិញ​ថា នៅមុនឆ្នាំ​១៩៧៩ សហរដ្ឋ​អាមេរិក​ទទួលស្គាល់​​តែ​រដ្ឋាភិបាល​សាធារណរដ្ឋ​ចិន (តៃវ៉ាន់) មួយ​ប៉ុណ្ណោះ​ថា​ជា​រដ្ឋាភិបាល​ស្របច្បាប់​របស់​ចិន។ ក៏ប៉ុន្តែ នៅ​ខែ​មករា ឆ្នាំ​១៩៩៧៩​ អាមេរិក​ក៏​បាន​ផ្លាស់ប្តូរ​មក​​ទទួល​ស្គាល់​រដ្ឋាភិបាល​សាធារណរដ្ឋ​ ប្រជាមានិត​ចិន (ចិន​ដីគោក) វិញ​ម្តង ហើយ​ទទួលស្គាល់ថា តៃវ៉ាន់​គឺ​ជា​ផ្នែក​មួយ​​នៃ​​ប្រទេស​ចិន មិនមែន​ជា​រដ្ឋ​ឯករាជ​នោះទេ (នយោបាយ​ចិនមួយ)។

ក៏ប៉ុន្តែ នៅ​ឆ្នាំ​ដដែល​នោះ សភា​អាមេរិក​បាន​អនុម័ត​ច្បាប់​មួយ (Taiwan Relations Act) បង្កើត​កាតព្វកិច្ច​ឲ្យ​រដ្ឋាភិបាល​អាមេរិក​រក្សា​ទំនាក់ទំនង​ជាមួយ​តៃវ៉ាន់ ​ដូចមុន ក្នុង​នោះ​រួមមាន​ទំនាក់ទំនង​ផ្នែក​វប្បធម៌ និង​ពាណិជ្ជកម្ម ព្រមទាំង​ទំនាក់ទំនង​ការទូត​ក្រៅផ្លូវការ។ ច្បាប់​នេះ​ក៏​បាន​តម្រូវ​ផងដែរ​ឲ្យ​រដ្ឋាភិបាល​អាមេរិក​ផ្គត់ផ្គង់​ គ្រឿងសព្វាវុធ​​ សម្រាប់​ឲ្យ​តៃវ៉ាន់​ទុក​ការពារ​ខ្លួន។ បើទោះជា​អាមេរិក​មិនដាក់តាំង​ស្ថានទូត​នៅ​តៃវ៉ាន់ ក៏ប៉ុន្តែ ការិយាល័យ​នៃ​វិទ្យាស្ថាន​មួយ ឈ្មោះ American Institute of Taiwan ត្រូវ​បាន​បង្កើត​ឡើង នៅ​ក្រុង​តៃប៉ិ ដែល​​មាន​បេសកកម្ម​ប្រហាក់ប្រហែល​នឹង​ស្ថានទូត​ដែរ។

និយាយ​ជារួម ជាផ្លូវការ អាមេរិក​​ទទួលស្គាល់​តែ​រដ្ឋាភិបាល​ចិន​ដីគោក មិនទទួលស្គាល់​តៃវ៉ាន់ ក៏ប៉ុន្តែ ក្នុង​ការ​អនុវត្ត​ជាក់ស្តែង តៃវ៉ាន់​នៅតែ​ជា​សម្ព័ន្ធមិត្ត​ជាយុទ្ធសាស្រ្ត​របស់​អាមេរិក​ដដែល។

ក៏ប៉ុន្តែ ពីមួយឆ្នាំ​ទៅមួយឆ្នាំ នៅពេល​ដែល​ចិន​ដីគោក​មាន​កម្លាំង​សេដ្ឋកិច្ច​កាន់តែ​ខ្លាំង ផលប្រយោជន៍​របស់​អាមេរិក​នៅចិន​ក៏​មាន​កាន់តែ​ច្រើន។ ការរក្សា​ទំនាក់ទំនង​ល្អ​​ជាមួយ​ចិន កាន់តែ​ក្លាយ​ជា​រឿង​ចាំបាច់​មួយ​របស់​រដ្ឋាភិបាល​អាមេរិក។ ទំនាក់ទំនង​អាមេរិក-ចិន-តៃវ៉ាន់ ក៏​បាន​ក្លាយ​​បន្តិចម្តងៗ​ទៅ​ជា​​ “ស្នេហាត្រីកោណ” ដ៏ស្មុគស្មាញ​មួយ។

រដ្ឋាភិបាល​អាមេរិក​បាន​បង្ហាញ​នូវ​ភាព​ប្រយ័ត្នប្រយែង​កាន់តែ​ខ្លាំង ដោយ​ព្យាយាម​ថ្លឹងថ្លែង​​មិន​ឲ្យ​សំណុំរឿង​តៃវ៉ាន់​ក្លាយ​ជា​ឧបសគ្គ​​រារាំង ​ទំនាក់ទំនង​ជាមួយ​ចិនដីគោក។ ភាពប្រយ័ត្នប្រយែង​នេះ​បាន​បង្ហាញ​ឲ្យ​ឃើញ​តាមរយៈ​​ការពន្យារពេល​លក់​អាវុធ​ ទៅឲ្យ​តៃវ៉ាន់ ក្នុង​រយៈពេល​ប៉ុន្មាន​ឆ្នាំ​ចុងក្រោយ​នេះ។

គួរ​បញ្ជាក់ថា តៃវ៉ាន់​បាន​ស្នើ​ទិញ​សព្វាវុធ​ជាច្រើន​ពី​អាមេរិក​ ក្នុងនោះ​ក៏​មាន​សំណើ​សុំទិញ​យន្តហោះ​ចម្បាំង​ទំនើបៗ និង​នាវាមុជទឹកផងដែរ។ សំណើ​នេះ​ត្រូវ​បាន​​លោក​ប្រធានាធិបតី​​ប៊ូស​យល់​ព្រម​ជា​គោលការណ៍​តាំង​ពី​ ឆ្នាំ​២០០១​ម៉្លេះ។ ក៏ប៉ុន្តែ រហូត​មកទល់​ពេលនេះ ជាង​ ១០​ឆ្នាំ​កន្លងទៅហើយ រដ្ឋាភិបាល​អាមេរិក​នៅតែ​មិនទាន់​លក់​​យន្តហោះ​ចម្បាំង និង​នាវាមុជ​ទឹក​ទៅ​ឲ្យ​តៃវ៉ាន់​នៅឡើយ៕

tags: ចិន – តៃវ៉ាន់ – សហរដ្ឋអាមេរិក

ចិន និង តៃវ៉ាន់ ៖ ឆ្មានិងកណ្តុរ

ប្រភព  RFI  (http://www.khmer.rfi.fr/asia/20110404)

ដោយ តាន់ ហ្សង់-ហ្វ្រង់ស្វ័រ

ថ្ងៃ​នេះ​ហ្សង់-ហ្វ្រង់ស័រ​ តាន់ សូម​បន្ត​ពិនិត្យ​មើល​ទៅ​លើ​ស្ថានភាព​ភូមិសាស្រ្ត​នយោបាយ​របស់​ប្រទេស​ចិន​ត ​ទៅ​ទៀត ដោយ​សូម​​និយាយ​ពី​ទំនាក់ទំនង​រវាង​ប្រទេស​ចិន​និង​តៃវ៉ាន់។
នៅ​លើ​ក្រឡា​អុក​ភូមិសាស្ត្រ​នយោបាយ​បច្ចុប្បន្ន និង​នៅ​លើ​ឆាក​អន្តរជាតិ​សព្វថ្ងៃ ចិន ​ដី​គោក​មាន​ឥទ្ធិពល​ខ្លាំង​ណាស់​បើ​ធៀប​ទៅ​នឹង​ចិន​តៃវ៉ាន់ បាន​ន័យ​ថា ចិន​កុម្មុយនិស្ត​ប្រៀប​បាន​នឹង​សត្វ​ឆ្មា រី​ឯ​ចិន​តៃវ៉ាន់​វិញ​ប្រៀប​បាន​នឹង​សត្វ​កណ្តុរ។

ចំពោះ​ថ្នាក់​ដឹកនាំ​ចិន អូសទាញ​តៃវ៉ាន់​មក​ដាក់​នៅ​ក្រោម​ការ​គ្រប់គ្រង​របស់​ខ្លួន ជា​ការ​មួយ​ចាំបាច់​បំផុត។ ពីព្រោះ​ចិន​នឹង​មិន​អាច​មាន​ឈ្មោះ​ជា​មហា​អំណាច​តំបន់ ឬ​ជា​មហា​អំណាច​ពិភពលោក​ពិត​ប្រាកដ​បាន​ទេ ប្រសិន​បើ​នៅ​តែ​មាន​ដូច​អ៊ីចឹង​ត​ទៅ​ទៀត ចិន​ដី​គោក និង​ចិន​តៃវ៉ាន់ ចិន​កុម្មុយនិស្ត និង​ចិន​ប្រជាធិបតេយ្យ នៅ​លើ​ឆាក​អន្តរជាតិ។

វត្តមាន​នៃ​ប្រទេស​ចិន​ពីរ​បាន​ផ្តើម​ឡើង តាំង​ពី​ឆ្នាំ​១៩៤៩​មក​ម្ល៉េះ។ កាល​ណោះ កង​ទ័ព​អ្នក​ជាតិ​និយម​ចិន​ដែល​ដឹកនាំ​ដោយ ជាង កាយជាក​ (Chiang Kai-Shek) បាន​ច្បាំង​ចាញ់​កង​កម្លាំង​កុម្មុយនិស្ត​របស់ ម៉ៅ សេទុង (Mao Tsé-Toung) ហើយ​បាន​មក​ប្រកាស​បង្កើត​សាធារណរដ្ឋ​ចិន នៅ​លើ​កោះ​តៃវ៉ាន់។ រី​ឯ ម៉ៅ សេទុង វិញ បាន​ប្រកាស​បង្កើត​សាធារណរដ្ឋ​ប្រជាមានិត​ចិន​នៅ​ឆ្នាំ​១៩៤៩ នោះ​ដែរ។

ក្រោយ​មក ចិន​ដី​គោក​បែរ​ទៅ​ខាង​ពិភព​កុម្មុយនិស្ត ចំណែក​តៃវ៉ាន់​វិញ ចុះ​ចូល​ជាមួយ​លោក​សេរី ជាហេតុ​ធ្វើ​ឲ្យ​ដែនដី​ទាំង​ពីរ​ឃ្លាត​ឆ្ងាយ​ពី​គ្នា និង​ប្រឆាំង​គ្នា ទាំង​នៅ​លើ​វិស័យ​របប​នយោបាយ ទាំង​នៅ​លើ​វិស័យ​នយោបាយ​សេដ្ឋកិច្ច។ នៅ​ខាង​ចិន​ដី​គោក គឺ​ជា​អំណាច​ផ្តាច់ការ និង​សេដ្ឋកិច្ច​ផែនការ។ នៅ​ខាង​ចិន​តៃវ៉ាន់​វិញ គឺ​ជា​របប​ពហុបក្ស និង​សេដ្ឋកិច្ច​ផ្សារ​សេរី។

តាម​ការ​ពិត គ្មាន​ឡើយ​វប្បធម៌​នយោបាយ​រួម​រវាង​ចិន​ដី​គោក​ និង​ចិន​តៃវ៉ាន់ ហើយ​ក៏​គ្មាន​ដែរ​ប្រវត្តិសាស្ត្រ​រួម។ ពីព្រោះ​កាល​ពី​ដើម តៃវ៉ាន់​បាន​ឋិត​នៅ​ក្រោម​ការ​កាន់កាប់​របស់​ចក្រភព​ចិន​តែ​ដប់​ឆ្នាំ​ ប៉ុណ្ណោះ គឺ​ពី​ឆ្នាំ​១៨៨៥​ដល់​ឆ្នាំ​១៨៩៥។ នៅ​ឆ្នាំ​១៨៩៥ សន្ធិសញ្ញា​មួយ​ដែល​មាន​ឈ្មោះ​ថា​សន្ធិសញ្ញា​Shimonoseki បាន​ផ្ទេរ​តៃវ៉ាន់​ទៅ​ឲ្យ​ជប៉ុន ហើយ​ជប៉ុន​បាន​បាត់​បង់​កោះ​នេះ​ទៅ​វិញ​នៅ​ឆ្នាំ​១៩៤៥ នៅ​ពេល​ដែល​បាន​ចាញ់​សង្គ្រាម​លោក​លើក​ទី​ពីរ។ និយាយ​រួម ក្រៅ​ពី​ភាសា គ្មាន​ឡើយ​អត្តសញ្ញាណ​រួម​និង​ព្រហ្មលិខិត​រួម រវាង​ចិន​ដី​គោក​និង​ចិន​តៃវ៉ាន់។

ទោះ​ជា​យ៉ាង​ណា​ក៏​ដោយ នៅ​លើ​ក្រឡា​អុក​ភូមិសាស្ត្រ​នយោបាយ​បច្ចុប្បន្ន ចិន​ដី​គោក​ប្រៀប​បាន​នឹង​សត្វ​ឆ្មា រី​ឯ​ចិន​តៃវ៉ាន់​វិញ​ប្រៀប​បាន​នឹង​សត្វ​កណ្តុរ។ នៅ​ចំពោះមុខ​មហា​យក្ស​ចិន​កុម្មុយនិស្ត​ដែល​សហគមន៍​អន្តរជាតិ​កោតខ្លាច តៃវ៉ាន់​ដែល​ជា​ដី​មួយ​កូន​ដុំ​ព័ទ្ធ​ជុំ​វិញ​ទៅ​ដោយ​សមុទ្រ ពឹង​ពាក់​បាន​តែ​ទៅ​លើ​ប្រទេស​សម្ព័ន្ធ​មិត្រ​ពីរ​ឬ​បី​តែ​ប៉ុណ្ណោះ ដែល​នៅ​ឆ្ងាយ​ឬ​សែន​ឆ្ងាយ​ពី​ខ្លួន។ សម្ព័ន្ធភាព​នោះ​ទៀត​សោត មិន​អាច​ជា​សម្ពន្ធ័ភាព​សម្រាប់​យុទ្ធសាស្រ្ត​យោធា​វាយលុក​បាន​ទេ គឺ​សម្រាប់​តែ​យុទ្ធសាស្ត្រ​ការពារ​មួយ​មុខ​ប៉ុណ្ណោះ​ក្នុង​ករណី​ណា​ដែល​មាន ​ការ​ឈ្លានពាន​ពី​សំណាក់​ចិន​ដី​គោក។

បើ​និយាយ​ពី​ចំនួន​មនុស្ស​វិញ ប្រជាជន​តៃវ៉ាន់​ប្រមាណ​ជាង​២៣​លាន​នាក់ គ្មាន​ទម្ងន់​ឡើយ នៅ​ចំពោះ​មុខ​ប្រជាជន​ចិន​ដី​គោក​ប្រមាណ​ជាង​១ ៣០០​លាន​នាក់។ ម្យ៉ាង​វិញ​ទៀត​ នៅ​ពេល​ដែល​ចិន​ដី​គោក​កំពុង​បង្កើន​សមត្ថភាព​យោធា ក្នុង​គោលដៅ​បង្រួបបង្រួម​ចិន​ពីរ​ឲ្យ​ទៅ​ជា​ចិន​តែ​មួយ តៃវ៉ាន់​គ្មាន​ជម្រើស​អ្វី​ក្រៅ​ពី​អនុវត្ត​យុទ្ធសាស្ត្រ​សេដ្ឋកិច្ច និង​ការ​ទូត​បន្តិច​បន្តួច​ដើម្បី​ការពារ​អធិបតេយ្យ​របស់​ខ្លួន និង​ធ្វើ​យ៉ាង​ណា​កុំ​ឲ្យ​ខ្លួន​ឋិត​ក្នុង​ភាព​ឯកា ខ្លាំង​ពេក​នៅ​លើ​ឆាក​អន្តរជាតិ។

តាម​ការ​ពិត ជោគ​វាសនា​របស់​តៃវ៉ាន់ អាស្រ័យ​សឹង​ទាំង​ស្រុង​ទៅ​លើ​ទំនាក់ទំនង​រវាង​ចិន និង​សហរដ្ឋ​អាមេរិក ដូច​មាន​ប្រវត្តិសាស្ត្រ​ឆ្នាំ​១៩៧០​ដល់​ឆ្នាំ​១៩៨០ ជា​ឧទាហរណ៍​ជាក់​ស្តែង​ស្រាប់។ កាល​ណោះ អាមេរិក​ដែល​បាន​សម្រេច​ចិត្ត​សម្រួល​ទំនាក់​ទំនង​ជាមួយ​ចិន​កុម្មុយនិស្ត​ វិញ បាន​បំភ្លេច​ចោល​ទាំង​ស្រុង​ពាក្យ​សន្យា​របស់​ខ្លួន​ថា​គាំ​ទ្រ​និង​ការពារ​ តៃវ៉ាន់​រៀង​រហូត។ គឺ​ការ​ផ្លាស់​ប្តូរ​នយោបាយ​ការ​បរទេស​របស់​សហរដ្ឋអាមេរិក​បែប​នេះ​ហើយ ដែល​បាន​បើក​លទ្ធភាព​ឲ្យ​ចិន​ដី​គោក​ឡើង​មក​អង្គុយ​អាសនៈ​អង្គការ​ សហប្រជាជាតិ ជំនួស​​តៃវ៉ាន់ នៅ​ឆ្នាំ​១៩៧១។

ស្ថានភាព​រឹងរឹត​តែ​ធ្ងន់ធ្ងរ​សម្រាប់​តៃវ៉ាន់​នៅ​ឆ្នាំ​១៩៧២ នា​ពេល​ដែល​ប្រធានាធិបតី​អាមេរិក Nixon បាន​ទៅ​ធ្វើ​ទស្សនកិច្ច​នៅ​ប្រទេស​ចិន​កុម្មុយនិស្ត។ ពីព្រោះ​កាល​នោះ សេចក្តី​ថ្លែង​ការណ៍​រួម​នៅ​សៀងហៃ​រវាង​ចិន​និង​អាមេរិក​ទទួល​ស្គាល់​ជា​លើក ​ទី​មួយ​បង្អស់​គោលការណ៍​នៃ​ឯកភាព​របស់​ចិន ដែល​ក្រោយ​មក​ក្លាយ​ជា​គោលការណ៍​ប្រទេស​ចិន​តែ​មួយ​គត់ នៅ​លើ​ឆាក​អន្តរជាតិ។ អ៊ីចឹង​ហើយ​បាន​ជា​នៅ​ឆ្នាំ​១៩៧៩ អាមេរិក​បាន​សម្រេច​បិទ​ជា​ស្ថាពរ​ស្ថាន​ទូត​របស់​ខ្លួន​នៅ​តៃវ៉ាន់ ហើយ​បាន​បែរ​មក​សម្រួល​ទំនាក់ទំនង​ទូត​ជា​ផ្លូវការ​ជាមួយ​សាធារណរដ្ឋ​ ប្រជាមានិត​ចិន​វិញ។

តាំង​ពី​ពេល​នោះ​មក ចិន​កុម្មុយនិស្ត​ឈប់​ប្រើ​ពាក្យ​រំដោះ​តៃវ៉ាន់​នៅ​ក្នុង​សុន្ទរកថា​ជា​ ផ្លូវការ​ហើយ​ស្នើ​នៅ​ឆ្នាំ​១៩៨៣​ឲ្យ​តៃវ៉ាន់​ទទួល​យក​លក្ខន្តិកៈ​ជា​តំបន់​ រដ្ឋបាល​ពិសេស ពោល​គឺ​តៃវ៉ាន់​អាច​បន្ត​រក្សា​ស្វ័យភាព​និង​ប្រព័ន្ធ​គ្រប់គ្រង​ដាច់​ដោយ​ ឡែក​របស់​ខ្លួន​ត​ទៅ​ទៀត​បន្ទាប់​ពី​បង្រួបបង្រួម​ជា​មួយ​ចិន​ដី​គោក​ហើយ។ តែ​កាល​ណោះ តៃវ៉ាន់​ច្រាន​ចោល​មិន​ព្រម​ទទួល​សំណើ​នេះ។ ម៉្លោះហើយ តាំង​ពី​ពេល​នោះ​មក តំបន់​ដៃ​សមុទ្រ​Formose ក្លាយ​ជា​ចំណុច​ក្តៅ​គគុក​ជាង​គេ​បង្អស់​មួយ​នៅ​ក្នុង​លោក ដោយហេតុតែ​ជម្លោះ​កាន់​ខ្លាំង​ឡើង រវាង​ចិន​ដី​គោក​និង​ចិន​តៃវ៉ាន់។

ម្តង​ហើយ​ម្តង​ទៀត ចិន​ដី​គោក​គំរាម​ថា​នឹង​ប្រើ​កម្លាំង​ទ័ព​វាយ​យក​តៃវ៉ាន់។ ថ្នាក់ដឹកនាំ​ចិន​អះអាង​ថា នឹង​មាន​អន្តរាគមន៍​យោធា​ភ្លាម​មួយ​រំពេច បើ​សិន​ជា​ទី​មួយ តៃវ៉ាន់​ហ៊ាន​ប្រកាស​ឯករាជ្យ ទី​ពីរ​បើ​សិន​ជា​តៃវ៉ាន់​ហ៊ាន​បង្កើត​កម្មវិធី​នុយក្លេអ៊ែរ ក្នុង​គោលដៅ​ផលិត​គ្រាប់បែក​បរមាណូ និង​ទី​បី​បើ​សិន​ជា​តៃវ៉ាន់​នៅ​តែ​ចចេស​មិន​ព្រម​ចរចា ដើម្បី​បង្រួបបង្រួម​ចិន​ទាំង​ពីរ​ឲ្យ​ទៅ​ជា​ចិន​តែ​មួយ​ទេ​នោះ។

សហរដ្ឋអាមេរិក​វិញ បន្ត​លាក់​បាំង​បំណង​ពិត​ប្រាកដ​របស់​ខ្លួន។ នៅ​ម្ខាង អាមេរិក​ទទួល​ស្គាល់​ជា​ផ្លូវការ​គោលការណ៍​ប្រទេស​ចិន​តែ​មួយ។ នៅ​ម្ខាង​ទៀត អាមេរិក​ប្រឆាំង​មិន​ឲ្យ​ចិន​កុម្មុយនិស្ត​ប្រើ​កម្លាំង​យោធា​វាយ​យក​ តៃវ៉ាន់​ទាំង​កម្រោល។ និយាយ​បែប​ផ្សេង អាមេរិក​ចង់​ឲ្យ​ចិន​ដី​គោក​និង​ចិន​តៃវ៉ាន់​អង្គុយ​ចរចា​រក​ដំណោះស្រាយ​ដោយ ​សន្តិវិធី។ នៅ​ក្នុង​បរិបទ​បែប​នេះ អាមេរិក​ចាំ​បាច់​ត្រូវ​តែ​លាក់​បាំង​ជំហរ​ពិត​ប្រាកដ​របស់​ខ្លួន ធ្វើ​យ៉ាង​ណា​កុំ​ឲ្យ​តៃវ៉ាន់​បាន​ចិត្ត​ហ៊ាន​ប្រកាស​ឯករាជ្យ និង​ធ្វើ​យ៉ាង​ណា​កុំ​ឲ្យ​ចិន​កុម្មុយនិស្ត​ឡើង​ដៃ ហ៊ាន​ប្រើ​ទ័ព​វាយ​យក​តៃវ៉ាន់៕

ពាក្យគន្លឹះ : ចិន – តៃវ៉ាន់

ហេតុអ្វី​អាមេរិក​និង​ចិន​​​បារម្ភ​អំពី​ការ​​បោះឆ្នោត​ប្រធានាធិបតី​នៅ​តៃវ៉ាន់?

ប្រភព RFI

 ( http://www.khmer.rfi.fr/why-are-china-and-usa-worrying-about-taiwan-elections)

ដោយ សេង ឌីណា

នៅថ្ងៃ​សៅរ៍​​ ១៤ មករា​​នេះ ពលរដ្ឋ​តៃវ៉ាន់​នឹង​ត្រូវ​បោះឆ្នោត​ជ្រើសរើស​​ប្រធានាធិបតី​ សម្រាប់​អាណត្តិ​ថ្មី។ មេដឹកនាំ​អាមេរិក និង​ចិន​​កំពុង​តែតាមដាន​មើល​យ៉ាង​យកចិត្ត​ទុកដាក់​​ ​ចំពោះ​ដំណើរការ​បោះឆ្នោត​នៅតៃវ៉ាន់ ព្រោះ​លទ្ធផល​នៃ​ការ​បោះឆ្នោត​នេះ​នឹង​ជះឥទ្ធិពល​ចំពោះ​ទំនាក់ទំនង​ តៃវ៉ាន់-ចិន និង​ទំនាក់ទំនង​អាមេរិក-ចិន។

នៅ​ក្នុងការបោះឆ្នោតថ្ងៃ​សៅរ៍​នេះ គេ​ឃើញ​មាន​បេក្ខជន​ពីររូប ដែល​កំពុង​មាន​កម្លាំង​ប្រហាក់ប្រហែល​គ្នា ក្នុងការ​ប្រជែង​យក​តំណែង​ប្រធានាធិបតី​តៃវ៉ាន់។ មួយ គឺ​លោក​ម៉ា យីងជៀវ (Ma Ying Jeou) មក​ពី​គណបក្ស​គួមីនតាង (Kuomintang)​ និង​ជា​ប្រធានាធិបតី​ផុតអាណត្តិ។ មួយទៀត គឺ​លោកស្រី ឆៃ អ៊ីងវិន (Tsai Ing Wen) មេដឹកនាំ​គណបក្ស​ប្រឆាំង។

សម្រាប់​ពលរដ្ឋ​តៃវ៉ាន់ បញ្ហា​សំខាន់​ដែល​នឹង​កំណត់​​ជម្រើស​របស់​ពួកគេ គឺ​បញ្ហា​សេដ្ឋកិច្ច ការងារ និង​អត្តសញ្ញាណ​ជាតិ។ ក៏ប៉ុន្តែ សម្រាប់​មេដឹកនាំ​អាមេរិក និង​ចិន អ្វី​ដែលសំខាន់ គឺនយោបាយ​របស់​ប្រធានាធិបតី​ថ្មី​របស់​តៃវ៉ាន់ ចំពោះ​ចិន។

ចាប់តាំង​ពី​បាន​ជាប់​ឆ្នោត​ជា​ប្រធានាធិបតី កាលពី​ឆ្នាំ​២០០៨ លោក​ម៉ា យីងជៀវ បាន​ប្រកាន់​យក​នូវ​នយោបាយ​កណ្តាលមួយ ពោលគឺ តៃវ៉ាន់​​​នឹង​មិន​បង្រួបបង្រួម​ជាមួយ​ចិន ហើយ​ក៏​មិន​ប្រកាស​ឯករាជ្យ​​ជាផ្លូវការ​ដែរ។ ដោយសារ​នយោបាយ​នេះ ទំនាក់ទំនង​រវាង​ចិន និង​តៃវ៉ាន់​មាន​សភាព​ធូរស្រាល រហូត​មាន​មន្រ្តី​ជាន់ខ្ពស់​ចិន​ខ្លះ​បាន​ទៅ​បំពេញ​ទស្សនកិច្ច​ផ្លូវការ​នៅ​ តៃវ៉ាន់​ទៀតផង។

លោកស្រី​ឆៃ អ៊ីងវិន​វិញ គឺ​ជា​មេដឹកនាំ​គណបក្ស ដែល​​តែងតែប្រកាន់​យក​នយោបាយ​តឹងរ៉ឹង​ចំពោះ​ចិន​ ជាពិសេស គឺ​ចង់​ឲ្យ​តៃវ៉ាន់​ប្រកាស​ឯករាជ្យ​​ជាផ្លូវការ​ពី​ចិន។

នយោបាយ “ចិនមួយ” គឺ​ជា​នយោបាយ​ដ៏សំខាន់​មួយ​របស់​រដ្ឋាភិបាល​ចិន​បច្ចុប្បន្ន។ ចិន​តែងតែ​ចាត់ទុក​ថា តៃវ៉ាន់​គ្រាន់តែ​ជា​កោះ​មួយ​ប៉ុណ្ណោះ​របស់​ចិន។​ ការ​ទាញ​តៃវ៉ាន់​បញ្ចូល​មក​ក្នុង​ទឹកដី​ចិន​តែមួយ​វិញ គឺ​ជា​បញ្ហា​ទាក់ទង​នឹង​មោទនភាព​ជាតិ​របស់​ចិន។ រដ្ឋាភិបាល​ក្រុងប៉េកាំង​តែងតែ​បាន​អះអាង​ថា ខ្លួន​ចង់​ឲ្យ​ការបង្រួបបង្រួម​ជាមួយ​កោះតៃវ៉ាន់​អាច​ធ្វើ​ទៅបាន​ដោយ​ សន្តិវិធី ក៏ប៉ុន្តែ ក៏​បាន​គំរាម​ផងដែរ​​ថា​នឹង​ប្រើ​កម្លាំង​ទ័ព ប្រសិន​បើ​តៃវ៉ាន់​ប្រកាស​ឯករាជ្យ។

រហូតមកទល់ពេលនេះ ​ចិន​រក្សា​ទុក​មីស៊ីល​​​រាប់រយ​ដើម​តម្រង់​ទៅ​កោះតៃវ៉ាន់។ ជម្លោះ​រវាង​ចិន និង​តៃវ៉ាន់ ប្រាកដ​ជា​នឹង​ធ្វើ​ឲ្យ​មាន​​ការប្រឈមមុខ​ដាក់គ្នា​រវាង​ចិន និង​សហរដ្ឋ​អាមេរិក។

អាមេរិក និង​តៃវ៉ាន់​បាន​ចុះកិច្ចព្រមព្រៀង​ការពារជាតិ​ជាមួយ​គ្នា កាលពី​ឆ្នាំ​១៩៥៤។ កាលពី​ឆ្នាំ​១៩៧៩ សភា​អាមេរិក​ក៏​បាន​អនុម័ត​ច្បាប់​មួយ កំណត់ថា ការ​​ប្រើកម្លាំង​ទ័ព​វាយប្រហារ​​លើ​កោះតៃវ៉ាន់ គឺ​ជា​​ការ​គំរាមកំហែង​ដល់​សន្តិភាព និង​សន្តិសុខ។ រហូតមកទល់ពេលនេះ​ អាមេរិក​នៅតែ​បន្តលក់​គ្រឿង​សព្វាវុធ​ទៅ​ឲ្យ​តៃវ៉ាន់ ដែលបង្ក​ភាព​តានតឹង​ជារឿយៗ​រវាង​ចិន និង​អាមេរិក។

ដូច្នេះ ទាំងអាមេរិក ទាំង​ចិន សុទ្ធតែ​ចង់​ឃើញ​តៃវ៉ាន់​បន្ត​នយោបាយ​ចំពោះ​ចិន ដូច​ពេល​បច្ចុប្បន្ន​នេះ​តទៅមុខទៀត។

ការមាន​ទំនាក់ទំនង​ល្អ​​នឹង​គ្នា​ នាពេល​កន្លងទៅនេះ បាន​ផ្តល់​ផលប្រយោជន៍​យ៉ាង​ច្រើន​ ទាំងចំពោះ​ចិន និង​ចំពោះ​តៃវ៉ាន់។ ការផ្តោះប្តូរ​ពាណិជ្ជកម្ម​រវាង​ចិន និង​តៃវ៉ាន់ កាលពី​ឆ្នាំ​២០១១​កន្លងទៅនេះ បាន​កើនឡើង​រហូតដល់​ទៅ ១៦០ពាន់​លាន​ដុល្លារ។ ការវិនិយោគ​របស់ក្រុមហ៊ុន​​ចិន​ នៅ​តៃវ៉ាន់​ មាន​ ១៧៤លាន​ដុល្លារ ចំណែក ការវិនិយោគ​របស់​តៃវ៉ាន់ នៅចិន​វិញ មានរហូតដល់​ទៅ ១២ពាន់លាន​ដុល្លារ។

ចាប់តាំង​ពី​តៃវ៉ាន់​បើក​ច្រក​ព្រំដែន​ទទួល​អ្នកទេសចរ​ចិន កាល​ពី​បី​ឆ្នាំ​កន្លះមុន រហូតមកទល់ពេលនេះ មាន​អ្នកទេសចរចិន​ជាង ៣លាន​នាក់ បាន​មក​លេង​កោះតៃវ៉ាន់ ហើយ​អ្នកទេសចរ​តៃវ៉ាន់ រហូតដល់​ទៅ ៥លាន​នាក់ នាំគ្នា​ទៅ​លេង​ចិន​ដីគោក។

និយាយ​ជារួម ទំនាក់ទំនង​ល្អ​រវាង​ចិន និង​តៃវ៉ាន់ បាន​ផ្តល់​ផលប្រយោជន៍​ដល់​គ្រប់​ភាគី ទាំង​ចិន ទាំង​អាមេរិក និង​ទាំង​តៃវ៉ាន់​ខ្លួនឯង។ ក៏ប៉ុន្តែ ការកើនឡើង​នៃ​ប្រជាប្រិយភាព​របស់​បេក្ខនារី​បក្ស​ប្រឆាំង ដែល​​កំពុង​មាន​កម្លាំង​ប្រដំប្រសង​នឹង​លោក​ម៉ា យីងជៀវ គឺ​ជា​បញ្ហា​​ដែល​ធ្វើ​ឲ្យ​គេ​ព្រួយបារម្ភ៕

ពាក្យគន្លឹះ : ចិន – តៃវ៉ាន់ – សហរដ្ឋអាមេរិក

ការ​គ្រប់​គ្រង​វិស័យ​សុខាភិ​បាល​មិន​បាន​ល្អ​ជា​គ្រោះ​ថ្នាក់​ធំធេង!

ប្រភព RFI   (http://www.khmer.rfi.fr/mauvaises-conditions-de-soins-dans-des-hopitaux-cambodgiens)

ដោយ ប៉ែន បូណា

នៅ​កម្ពុជា​បច្ចុប្បន្ន​ សុខភាព​សាធារណៈ​គឺជា​បញ្ហា​ប្រឈម​មួយ​ក្នុង​ចំណោម​បញ្ហា​ប្រឈម​ធំៗ​ជាច្រើន​ ដែល​បង្ក​គ្រោះថ្នាក់​ធំធេង​សម្រាប់​សង្គម។​នៅ​​ពេល​​មាន​​ជំងឺ​​ម្តងៗ​​ ប្រជាពល​រដ្ឋ​​ខ្មែរ​អ្នកក្រីក្រ​ដែល​គ្មាន​លទ្ធភាព​ចេញ​ទៅ​ព្យាបាល​នៅ​ក្រៅ ​ប្រទេស​ កំពុង​ប្រឈម​បញ្ហា​មិន​ប្រាកដ​ប្រជា​នៃ​សុខាភិបាល​ក្នុង​ស្រុក។ ​តម្លៃ​ខ្ពស់,​ការ​ព្យាបាល​មិន​សូវ​មាន​ប្រសិទ្ធិភាពនិង​ភាព​​អនាធិបតេយ្យ​ នៅ​ក្នុង​ការ​ឃោសនា​និង​ដាក់​លក់​ថ្នាំ​ពេទ្យ​ ឬ​ផលិតផល​ទាក់ទង​នឹង​សុខភាព​កំពុង​កើត​មាន​ពេញ​បន្ទុក។​ ក្រៅ​ពី​នោះ​ គ្រូពេទ្យ​មួយចំនួន​បាន​សម្លឹង​ឃើញ​ប្រាក់​ជាធំ ​ដោយ​បំភ្លេច​ចោល​ក្រមសីលធម៌​វិជ្ជាជីវៈ។​ទាំងនេះ​ជា​គ្រោះថ្នាក់​ធំធេង​ សម្រាប់​សង្គម​កម្ពុជា។

នៅ​ពេល​ដែល​មាន​សមាជិក​គ្រួសារ​ណា​ម្នាក់​ធ្លាក់​ខ្លួន​ឈឺ ​គ្រួសារ​អ្នក​មាន​លទ្ធភាព​បាន​ស្វែង​រក​​ជា​បឋម​ការ​ចាក​ចេញ​ទៅ​ព្យាបាល​នៅ ​ក្រៅ​ប្រទេស​ ដូច​ជា​សាំងហ្គាពួរ​ ថៃ ​ឬ​វៀតណាម​ ទៅ​តាម​លទ្ធភាព​ធនធាន​ដែល​ខ្លួន​មាន។ ​និន្នាការ​ដែល​នៅ​តែ​បន្ត​កើត​ឡើងនិង​កើន​ឡើង​កាន់​តែ​ខ្លាំង​នេះ​បាន​ បង្ហាញ​ពី​ការ​បាត់បង់​ជំនឿ​ចិត្ត​របស់​ប្រជាពលរដ្ឋ​ទៅ​លើ​វិស័យ​សុខាភិបាល​ ក្នុង​ស្រុក។ ​ប៉ុន្តែ ​គ្រួសារ​អ្នកក្រីក្រ​គ្មាន​ជម្រើស​អ្វី​ក្រៅពី​រត់​រក​មណ្ឌល​សុខភាព ​មន្ទីរពេទ្យ​រដ្ឋ​ ឬ​ក៏​មន្ទីរ​ពហុព្យាបាល​ឯកជន​ក្នុង​ស្រុក​នោះ​ឡើយ។ ​បញ្ហា​ដែល​កំពុង​ចោទ​ឡើង​ក្នុង​វិស័យ​សុខា​ភិបាល​​កម្ពុជា​បច្ចុប្បន្ន​គឺ ​ទី១៖ ​គុណភាព​នៃ​ការព្យាបាល​មិន​សូវ​ល្អ ​តែ​តម្លៃ​ខ្ពស់ ​ទី២៖ ​ការ​ធ្លាក់​ចុះ​នៃ​សីលធម៌​គ្រូពេទ្យ ​និង​ទី៣៖ ​ភាព​អនាធិបតេយ្យ​ក្នុង​ការឃោសនា​ផលិតផល​ដែល​ទាក់ទង​នឹង​សុខភាព​ រួមទាំង​ថ្នាំ​ពេទ្យ​មួយចំនួន​ផង។

ជាការពិត​ណាស់ ​បញ្ហា​នៅ​ក្នុង​វិស័យ​សុខាភិបាល​កម្ពុជា​បច្ចុប្បន្ន​មាន​ច្រើន​យ៉ាង​ ដូចជា​គ្រូពេទ្យ​ជាច្រើន​នៅ​មាន​កម្រិត​ជំនាញ​ទាប ​សីលធម៌​គ្រូពេទ្យ​ធ្លាក់​ចុះ​ដោយសារ​គ្រូពេទ្យ​មួយ​ចំនួន​ហាក់​ដូចជា​មើល​ ឃើញ​ប្រាក់​ជាធំ ​រីឯ​ការ​គ្រប់គ្រង​វិស័យ​សុខាភិបាល​នៅ​ធូរ​រលុង​ដែល​បង្កើត​ឲ្យ​មាន​ភាព​ អនាធិបតេយ្យ​ក្នុង​ការ​ឃោសនា​អំពី​សេវាកម្ម​សុខាភិបាល ​និង​ផលិតផល​សុខភាព​ខុស​ពី​ការពិត។​ ដើម្បី​ប្រាក់​ គ្រូពេទ្យ​ខ្លះ​បាន​បង្ខំចិត្ត​ព្យាបាល​ជំងឺ​ដើម្បី​ទាក់ទាញ​អតិថិជន​ ដូចជា​ប្រើ​ថ្នាំ​ហួស​កម្រិត​ដើម្បី​ឲ្យ​អ្នក​ជំងឺ​ឆាប់​ជា​ដោយ​មិន​បាន​គិត ​ពី​ផល​វិបាក​ទៅ​ថ្ងៃ​ក្រោយ។​ គ្រូពេទ្យ​ខ្លះ​ឲ្យ​ថ្នាំ​ទៅ​អ្នក​ជំងឺ ​ជាពិសេស​ជំងឺ​កុមារ​តែម្តង​ ដោយ​លាយ​ថ្នាំ​រួច​ជាស្រេច​ដើម្បី​កុំ​ឲ្យ​អតិថិជន​ចំណាំ​បាន​ថា​ជា​ ថ្នាំអ្វី? ​គ្រូពេទ្យ​ខ្លះ​ទៀត​បញ្ចុះ​បញ្ចូល​ឲ្យ​អ្នកជំងឺ​ព្យូរ​សេរ៉ូម​ឬទទួល​ ការវះកាត់​ដើម្បី​ទទួល​បាន​ប្រាក់​កម្រៃ​ខ្ពស់​សូម្បី​តែ​ស្ថានភាព​អ្នក​ ជំងឺ​មិន​ទាន់​តម្រូវ​ឲ្យ​ទទួល​ការ​វះកាត់​ក៏ដោយ។ ​មាន​កន្លែង​ព្យាបាល​ជំងឺ​ខ្លះ​ទៀត​មិន​ដាក់​ស្លាក​សញ្ញា​ត្រឹមត្រូវ​ទេ​ ពោលគឺ​អ្នក​ជំងឺ​អាច​ទៅ​ពិគ្រោះ​ជំងឺ​បាន​តាម​រយៈ​ការ​ណាត់​តាម​ទូរស័ព្ទនៅ​ កន្លែង​មួយ​ដែលហាក់​ដូច​ជា​លួច​លាក់។
ពេល​មាន​គ្រោះថ្នាក់​ចរាចរណ៍ ​ជនរងគ្រោះ​នឹង​ត្រូវ​គេ​ប្រញាយ​គ្នា​ដឹក​ទៅ​កន្លែង​សង្គ្រោះ​ដោយ​ទារ​ ប្រាក់​ច្រើន​តាម​ដែល​អាច​ធ្វើ​ទៅ​បាន។ ​សង្គ្រាម​ដណ្តើម​ម៉ូយ​របស់​រថយន្ត​សង្គ្រោះ​ហាក់​បាន​ស្ងប់ស្ងាត់​បន្តិច​ រយៈ​ពេល​ចុងក្រោយ​នេះ​បន្ទាប់​ពី​មាន​ចំណាត់ការ​ពី​ក្រសួង​សុខាភិបាល។ ងាក​ទៅ​មើល​កន្លែង​លក់​ថ្នាំ​ពេទ្យ​វិញ ​មាន​ឱសថស្ថាន​ជាច្រើន​កន្លែង​គ្មាន​ច្បាប់​អនុញ្ញាត​ ឱសថស្ថាន​​ខ្លះ​ទៀត​គ្មាន​ឱសថការី​ជា​អ្នក​ឈរ​លក់​ថ្នាំ​ពិតប្រាកដ​ឡើយ។

​នៅ​កម្ពុជា​ មនុស្ស​ទូទៅ​អាច​ទិញ​ថ្នាំ​ពេទ្យ​បាន​តាម​ចិត្ត​ចង់​ ឬ​ក៏​អ្នកលក់​ថ្នាំ​ខ្លះ​តាំង​ខ្លួន​ជា​អ្នក​ផ្សំ​ថ្នាំ​ឲ្យ​អ្នកជំងឺ​ដោយ​​ ខ្លួនឯង​ដោយ​មិន​ចាំបាច់​មាន​វេជ្ជបញ្ជា។ ​ផលិតផល​ថ្នាំពេទ្យ ​ឬ​ផលិតផល​ដែល​ទាក់​ទង​​​នឹង​សុខភាព​ត្រូវ​បាន​គេ​ឃោសនា ​និង​ដាក់លក់​តាម​ទំនើង​ចិត្ត។ ​តើ​ទាំង​នេះ​មិន​មែន​ជា​ភាព​អនាធិបតេយ្យ​ក្នុង​វិស័យ​សុខាភិបាល​ទេឬ? ​និយាយ​បែប​នេះ ​គេ​ក៏​មិន​ត្រូវ​ភ្លេច​គ្រូពេទ្យ​ខ្លះ​ដែល​បាន​ខិតខំ​គោរព​ក្រមសីលធម៌ ​និង​បាន​ធ្វើអ្វីៗ​គ្រប់​យ៉ាង​ដើម្បី​លើក​កម្ពស់​វិស័យ​សុខាភិបាល​នោះ​ដែរ។ ​អ្នក​ទាំងនោះ​គួរ​តែ​ទទួល​បាន​ការគោរព ​និង​លើក​ទឹកចិត្ត។
យ៉ាងណា​ក៏ដោយ​ ក្រសួង​សុខាភិបាល​គួរ​គ្រប់គ្រង​វិស័យ​របស់​ខ្លួន​ឲ្យ​បាន​ល្អ​ជាង​សព្វថ្ងៃ។

ក្រៅពី​ការ​បង្កើន​គុណភាព​សុខាភិបាល,​ ការ​ពង្រឹង​សីលធម៌​គ្រូពេទ្យ ​និង​ធ្វើ​ឲ្យ​សុខាភិបាល​មាន​តម្លៃ​ថោក​សម្រាប់​ជនក្រីក្រ​គឺជា​រឿង​សំខាន់ ​និង​ត្រូវ​ចាត់​វិធានការ​ជាបន្ទាន់។​ បន្ទាប់​មក​ទៀត ​ការ​គ្រប់គ្រង​អាជីវកម្ម​ថ្នាំពេទ្យ ​និង​ផលិតផល​ទាក់ទង​នឹង​សុខភាព​គឺជា​រឿង​ចាំបាច់​មិន​អាច​ខាន​បាន​ពីព្រោះ​ ថា​ ភាព​អនាធិបតេយ្យ​ក្នុង​វិស័យ​នេះ​ក៏​ចូល​រួម​ចំណែក​យ៉ាង​សំខាន់​ដែរ​ក្នុង​ ការ​បំផ្លាញ​ថវិកា​គ្រួសារ​របស់​ពលរដ្ឋខ្មែរ​ដោយសារ​តែ​ការ​ជឿ​ទៅលើ​ការ​ ឃោសនា​មិន​សមហេតុផល។ ​ការ​បណ្តែត​បណ្តោយ​ឲ្យ​មាន​ភាព​អនាធិបតេយ្យ​ក្នុង​វិស័យ​សុខាភិបាល​គឺជា​ គ្រោះថ្នាក់​ធំធេង​សម្រាប់​សុខភាព​សាធារណៈ ​ក៏ដូច​ជា​គ្រោះ​ថ្នាក់​សម្រាប់​សង្គម​កម្ពុជា​ទាំង​មូល៕

ពាក្យគន្លឹះ : កម្ពុជា